Read Ebook: How to Observe in Archaeology Suggestions for Travellers in the Near and Middle East by British Museum Hill George Francis Sir Editor

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Town sites rise in Egypt about forty inches a century, by the dust, rubbish, and decay of mud-brick buildings. In Palestine the rise is five feet a century, owing to the rains.

Cemeteries. These have generally been more or less plundered; if recently, the pits show; if anciently, there are scraps of pottery lying about. If there are pebbles or marl thrown up from deep levels, there is evidence of tombs, and they may be unplundered. Blown sand or grass may hide all trace of tombs. Sometimes the whole masonry of a tomb may have been removed, and the gravel filling-in have spread so uniformly that there is no sign of building, although a course or two of stone may yet remain under the surface. The surface of ground should be closely looked over at sunrise or sunset to show up the slight hollows or ridges by the shadows. After rain differences will often appear in the drying of the ground. Ask any one near a site if he knows of any one getting stones, or bronze, or plunder from tombs. Anything found will probably be greatly exaggerated, and no clear idea of the time of finding can be reached; yet any such detail may be useful.

Any large town site must have a cemetery, which is near it in most cases. In Egypt the towns being in the inundated land, the cemeteries are at some miles distant on the desert. The prehistoric cemeteries may be anywhere; the historic cemeteries are usually round the ends of the dyke roads, which were thrown up in the early dynasties as irrigation dams, and still serve as the roads of the country. In Greek lands cemeteries are always outside a town, usually by the side of the roads.

Caves should always be carefully explored; the roof and sides searched for inscriptions or carvings; rock pockets in the sides examined; and the floor dug over for potsherds and any small objects. If there are different strata these should be each removed separately, and the depth and positions of objects noted.

Though we cannot here give full technical details of all the methods for plans and surveys, it will be useful to state the scope of each method, so that they may be kept in mind, and whichever is best suited to the individual and his work may be provided for.

When first searching a site, note the direction of any wall to the horizon point, and so see if other walls are parallel.

In all cases a plumb line is wanted for alining foundations and scattered blocks. Always carry six feet of thin string, and pick up the nearest suitable stone for a weight, up to three or four pounds in a wind.

Inscriptions. If there is any chance of being interrupted by any claimant, or by crowds, always make a hand copy at once, as quickly as possible. After a squeeze or photograph is taken, yet the hand copy is often of value to explain positions of squeeze slips or detail of photographs.

If there is no chance of interruption, then a carefully drawn copy full size should be made. For this a dry squeeze is the ground work. Lay a sheet of thin paper, such as thin wrapping or plain paper, on the stone, and press all the letters over with the fingers, so as to make a sharp bend; a break in the deep hollows does not matter. Then, putting the paper on a drawing-board or sheet of millboard, cock it up so that the shadow of the squeeze is seen, and draw over the lines , referring to the stone whenever uncertain. This is the only right way to copy hieroglyphics by hand. Note that the edges are usually rather worn, and the drawn lines should be inside the squeeze lines. If the stone is large, several lesser sheets are best.

Where there is writing, or the relief is too faint to squeeze, put the paper immediately below the first line, and draw it sign for sign, so that the spacing is preserved and no omission is possible. Fold back the paper as each line is copied, and so always keep the copying close below the line of inscription.

If the signs are in an alphabet that is not familiar, refer to the table of alphabets.

Sculpture Sculpture in low relief can be copied best by dry squeeze. As the connexion of the sheets used should be exact, put up the first sheet truly vertical, and mark little pencil crosses at the corners on the stone. Then the corners of successive sheets should be fitted into the angles of the crosses. When inking in the pencil drawings, do not carry the lines within two inches of the edges of the sheets. Then place sheets edge to edge, adjust them to fit as best they may, weight them heavily with books, turn back one edge and weight it, and then slip a strip of wetted adhesive paper half-way under the edge that is down; at once liberate the edge that is up, and dab both heavily down on the adhesive. This makes a joint free of cockling, and when dry the inking can be completed across the joint. Where there is any colour remaining on sculpture or inscription, only dry squeezing is permissible.

Where signs are worn or decayed it is needful to try various lighting. This can be done in the open air, by shading the part by the hands placed around it as a sort of tube, the head blocking out the light over the tube. Then quickly raise a hand alternately, so as to reverse the oblique lighting, and watch the effect on the sign.

If the stone has not too tender a face, careful washing often brings out an inscription; and in such cases it is usually far easier to copy from a wet than from a dry stone.

If reliefs have been much weathered they can be made plain for photographing by laying horizontal and covering with sand; on wiping away the sand from the relief the ground will be left flat sand, so hiding the confused hollows of weathering.

The safest way for drawings to travel is to post them at the nearest post direct to where they will be worked up. The Postal Union takes rolls of 21 cm. thick, 60 cm. long, up to 5 kilos as parcels, or rolls of 10 cm. thick, 75 cm. long, up to 2 kilos by book post open at ends. This is far better than carrying rolls by hand.

Wet squeezing. Where there is no colour, and the stone is strong and not crumbling, a wet squeeze is the best copy. There are three purposes for it, and the method differs for each; thin single sheet kept fresh on the outer face for photographing later; or single sheet well beaten in and patched, depending on pricking the outlines and hand-copy from it, or blacking over the relief on the inner side and photographing; or double sheet hard beaten, and patched in the hollows, for plaster casting afterwards.

For there is no need to get an impression of the hollows to the bottom, and the face of the paper should be smooth. A soft paper, with little or no size, and a soft clothes-brush will do well for this. The sheet should cover the whole inscription, or have as few joints as may be. The stone should be dabbed with a wet brush so as to saturate the face, the sheet of paper well soaked in water laid upon it, taking care not to leave bubbles, and then dabbing firmly with the brush will drive the paper into the hollows. If the stone is polished or very smooth, it is needful to peel off the paper while wet by holding two corners, and lay it reversed on a flat surface to dry; if left on the stone the contraction will destroy the impress. Out of doors the paper can be held down by pebbles around it, or by sand on the edges, to prevent the wind catching it.

The stronger squeeze should be of a tough paper with moderate sizing. Cut the paper to the form of the stone. Thrust it into a pail of water, knead it about vigorously, roll it into a ball and pummel it, so as to break the grain and let the water well into it. Then wet the stone, shake out the paper like a wet handkerchief, full of creases, lay it on the stone and begin to beat it in with a hard, long spoke-brush. A few strokes round the edge will catch it down so that the wind does not disturb it. Then begin to beat it heavily along the top edge; beat it to a pulp, and patch with strips left soaking in the water wherever breaks occur. If the stone is porous the paper may part from it, especially if expanded by beating; the only course then is to slush more water on the face so that it will go through the breaks and hold the paper down again. It may be needful to slit the paper to let the water go below it. Beat down again, enough to fix it.

For casting purposes a final backing sheet, moderately beaten on, is needed to hold the squeeze together and stiffen it. Either or can be left on the face of the stone till quite dry, and then carefully detached by lifting up from one corner, and slipping a dinner-knife or a slip of wood under the paper to lift any part that sticks.

Stiff squeezes as must be packed flat; thin, as and sometimes , may be rolled in a large curve, but this always deteriorates a squeeze.

For plaster casting, a squeeze should be heated on a stove and brushed over with melted paraffin, or better wax, sufficient to cover the face without choking the finer detail. Before each cast the face should be lightly oiled with a tuft of wool.

Small objects. These can be copied by a thin paper squeeze, and the squeeze may be mounted by pasting a card and lightly pressing the squeeze back down on it. This will take out all cockling and make it lie flat for photographing.

Tin-foil is very handy for squeezes, and may be saved from chocolate for this. Press it firmly on a coin or seal with a tuft of wool, or beat it with a soft tooth-brush, being careful to avoid creases. The foil should then be floated on water, hollow back up, and blazing sealing-wax dropped into it to back it. The resulting positive can be then stuck on card.

For plaster casts of coins the face should be dusted with French chalk, as also a smooth bed of plasticine; the coin can then be pressed in safely without any possible risk, and afterward plaster cast in the mould. Sealing-wax is said to be sharper, but there is a risk of its sticking to the coin. If it is used, breathe hard on the coin, or wet it, before impressing; and when first set lift it slightly to detach it, and then replace till cold. Or tin-foil may be used, as in making positives; but, instead of floating on water, press plasticine on the foil while it is still on the object.

For curved surfaces, as cylinders, any of these methods can be used; the plasticine is the more successful.

In all casting of plaster on a small scale, use a soft camel-hair brush. Mix the plaster in the palm of the hand with a knife, take up some of the wettest to brush over the face of the moulds ; then put he brush in water, and take up thicker plaster with a pocket-knife to drop on as a backing. This avoids air bubbles without using too weak a plaster.

Copying hieroglyphic inscriptions. Where possible a wet or a dry squeeze should be taken of any inscription. When hand copying is necessary, the main matter is to get the cartouches of king's names accurately, and the date at the beginning, examining specially whether single strokes, I I I I, have been connected above, n n, forming the ten sign. The main difficulty for any one not knowing the 800 signs is to distinguish between those that are alike, especially when damaged. For this purpose the commonest signs that may be confused are here placed together, so that the essential points of difference may be noticed. A small cross is placed here by small points of distinction which might escape notice.

The camera and material have been described under outfit.

Lighting and preparation of objects is a main element of success. When first looking over any ruins, make a list of every view wanted, with the time of day when the sun will be right for it. Then follow the time-table, and so get the best lighting all in one day.

For movable stones or figures place them in half-shade, as a doorway, and then tilt every way until the best lighting is found, fix them in that position, and then set up the camera square with them.

The camera should usually be fixed to look downward vertically, and then variation up to 40 degrees can be got by the legs. Hold the camera in the right position, keeping the legs off the ground, and then drop the legs to find their own place; thus very skew positions can be fixed quickly.

Small objects are best laid on black velvet, and taken vertically. Scraps of charcoal are useful to prop them in exact positions. A sheet of white paper stuck on a leg of the stand may be useful to prevent shadows being too heavy. Where outline, and not flat detail, is wanted, then a light ground is best; the most perfect is a sheet of ground glass with white paper a foot or two below it. If the ground glass cannot be had, a good substitute-also useful for a camera glass-is plain glass with a sheet of tissue paper stuck on with paraffin wax.

The dressing of objects to show up clearly is often needful. Incised objects can be filled in with charcoal powder if light, or chalk if dark; in any case a coarse powder, so as not to stain the object. For faint cutting on glass or crystal go over the lines with 'China ink in a pen, so as to cover them. Harden the ink in the sun, and then gently wipe with a damp finger until all the excess is removed and only the roughness of the lines remains black. On large objects light dust or sand is often useful, to make relief clearer.

For objects in a bad light, or in the interior of tombs, reflected light must be used. Lids of biscuit tins serve well; a lid in the sun sixty feet off, and another lid reflecting the light on to a wall, will suffice for a two minutes' exposure of a slow plate. Three or four successive reflections into a totally dark chamber will suffice in five or six minutes.

When an important subject cannot be revisited it is well to take duplicates; the camera should be shifted laterally a few inches for a near object, or a few feet for a distant view, and then the two films will form a stereograph, if both succeed.

In arranging groups of small objects, put together what will go in a three-inch circle, and minor pieces around, and then the best in the middle can be printed direct on lantern slides.

While travelling little can be done for preserving objects. Papyrus rolls should be wrapped at once in a damp handkerchief, to be carried, and then wrapped in paper, packed in a tin box, and filled round with cotton wool. Small papyri can be safely damped in a wet cloth, and flattened out between the leaves of a book; secure one edge straight in the hinge, and gradually press flat and secure by advancing leaves over it. Glass, if perfect, should be packed in tins with wool; old food or tobacco tins do well for tender things.

Flint implements and coins, though hardy, should be saved from grinding by wrapping in waste paper.

Ivory, if it has been buried, is very liable to flake. The cure is to soak it in paraffin wax; but temporarily it is secured by winding cotton thread round it in many directions. Some anoint it with vaseline, but if vaseline penetrates the ivory, it will not take up paraffin or gelatine later. Tender wood may be likewise saved.

A much-cracked glazed jar was packed by winding string round it in all directions, with tufts of wool under the string.

A whole mummy in most fragile condition, so that it could not be lifted, was made up solid with 40 lb. of paraffin wax which was melted out of it afterwards in England, making hardly any change. If contracted burials should be preserved, dust carefully, splash on about 5 lb. of paraffin wax heated to smoking-point. When cold, detach from soil, turn over, paraffin the lower side, and build up weak parts with a sludge of melted paraffin and sand, nearly chilled. About 8 to 10 lb. of wax will do the whole. The skull should be packed separately. Pad all hollows of the body with soft rag to spread pressure in packing. Paraffin wax is the best preservative as it is tough, and may be used as a coat over an object for safety. When not needed it can be cut away, or melted away, and cleaned off completely with benzol. It should be melted in an iron saucepan, as solder will give way if it is superheated. As it melts at about 120 degrees F., and boils at about 600 degrees F., it can be greatly superheated, and used when smoking, so as to penetrate deeply into wood or porous material. It is perfect for strengthening skulls; most rotten examples slopped with paraffin, and finally soused for a few seconds so as entirely to cover the bone in and out, will travel safely, if not crushed.

Boxes must always have corner posts, inside or out; see that the sides are nailed up to the edges to the posts, or the lid or bottom may part by the side splitting. See that all nails--except for the lid--are driven slanting alternately one way and reversed, this prevents sides or bottom drawing off. Nail the lid with many short nails, so that it can be raised without splitting.

To secure heavy objects in a mixed box, an inverted rough stool is the best, the cross piece on the object below, and the sides coming up to the lid. If cross bars are nailed in a box, damage may be done to an object in forcing the bars loose. It is often best to put heavy and light things in the same box, to equalize weights in journeying; if well secured, a mixed boxful travels well. Be very careful that a wedge-shaped stone cannot force itself loose by repeated jolts, or it may split a box.

Slabs of stone ire best packed in open shallow boxes face down on straw or wool, secured by a few diagonal cross bars on the top, as then they do not need to be opened for customs. All stones of regular form should be supported at a fifth of the length from each end. No bedding on a box is worth anything, as the box will bend more than the stone, and the strain will all come on the middle. Very heavy blocks are best with sacking on the face, and roped round in various parts.

Pottery is most difficult to pack safely. For large jars, mark the points of contact on the box, and nail on cushions of old cloth stuffed hard with straw, so as to pad the jar on all sides; make sure that it cannot twist about into a diagonal position off the pads. Long boxes, five or six feet, with three or four cross divisions, are best. Begin packing, say four pots with straw, at one end of the box, press up a cross board tight on them, and nail through the sides: then another batch likewise; about one inch thick of hard-pressed straw is needful at each contact. Twist straw into rough bands, and wind it round each pot. Fill up corners to prevent the bands shifting loose. Empty small tins make good stuffing for blank spaces. Old newspapers torn to bits and rolled into balls make good packing for pots and hold them firmly, but this method is dangerous if the packing becomes wetted. Pots should always be packed tight. Old sacking or cotton stuff may be tied on over the mouth of large pots, to prevent straw slipping in, and loosening the packing.

Bronzes and coins should not be cleaned in any way, till in a settled work place.

Most travellers wish to buy some things of interest, and in remote districts they may do good service in rescuing important objects which may be wanted in museums. Forgeries are ubiquitous, even in most obscure places in the hands of peasants, either supplied by dealers, or casually obtained, often in good faith. It is best to inquire of local collectors and museums as to the kinds of forgeries met with. The following notes are to show the novice how far he may go safely.

Bronze figures with a thick red patina, which scales off readily sometimes, or with thick green patina cracked, or hard green or brown patina, are safe. Thin green patina, or bare brown or black metal is dubious.

Papyri in roll, flexible though fragile, in known Greek or Egyptian writing, are fairly safe. Lumps stuck together, brown and scrappy, are made up.

Coins cannot be safely bought unless patinated, copper or silver. Only an expert can judge of gold or 'clean silver.

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