Read Ebook: Contes et légendes. 1re Partie by Guerber H A H L Ne Adeline

Font size: 10 px 15 px 20 px 25 px 30 px 35 px

Background color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Text color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Apply/Save settings

Ebook has 599 lines and 52709 words, and 12 pages

Exercise pieces in mortise-and-tenons, miter, modeling and glue joint belong here. It is possible to arrange the work so that the modeling and glue joint exercise pieces may be considered under Application. The modeling exercise may well be a hammer handle, the metal part of which is to be worked in the metal class the other half of the first year. The glue joint may well be made upon wood of sufficient size that it may be used later, such as the taboret top. The mortise-and-tenon and miter, however, will be most profitable as exercises pure and simple. A moment's thought will indicate the reason for making the distinction.

Many courses give modeling in the grades. Modeling to be of value requires judgment and experience. This a grade pupil has not. The first year high school is sufficiently early for this kind of work. To place it earlier is to give the pupil a wrong impression of the requirements of good modeling, and his later work, in pattern-making for example, suffers accordingly.

Two machines should be made use of in the first year high school work, the band-saw and scroll or jig-saw. Both, when properly safeguarded, are well suited to give the pupil his first acquaintance with machinery. There is little educational value in further excessive ripping by hand at this stage of the course.

After these two exercises, with hinging and locking, the pupils may be allowed to work out pieces of their own choosing involving these elements, preparing their own stock, setting their machines, etc. In this way the "shop" practice, quantity or piece work, is obtained in the making of the exercises while the application later allows for the individuality of the pupil.

CLASSIFICATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR GRADES 7, 8, AND 9.

MECHANICAL DRAWING

Time: 2?/? hours per week for 12 weeks.

Principles Applications

Straight lines Angles Lettering

Geometric Construction-- Geometric Construction Sheet Circles, Hexagon, Octagon Ellipse

Principles reviewed Projects or Problems

HIGH SCHOOL

Working drawings continued As above.

Stock bills As above. Material costs figured

There has been an aim to correlate the woodworking and mechanical drawing just as far as the logical presentation of each would allow. From the concrete and near by to the more general has been the guiding principle in laying out the course in mechanical drawing as well as in woodwork. For this reason the seventh grade problems in woodwork have been utilized to introduce the elementary principles in mechanical drawing. Even as the pupils of our primary schools learn to read without being conscious of the "dry bones" of language and spelling back of it, so, in the teaching of mechanical drawing, the aim is to arouse in the beginner an interest in the ability to draw and to read drawings, as an accomplishment, and to inspire him to work, because he sees that there is something he needs, wants, and must have.

Little or no effort is made in seventh grade drawing to develop originality. Almost all effort is spent in developing a drawing technique and a good style. Most all of the pupils' drawings are made with plates before them. These they copy, using a different scale, however. To encourage the pupils to establish a high standard these drawings have been inked by a draftsman selected because of his excellence in this line of work.

The drawing of the grammar schools in most places is best taught by the instructor in woodwork. Extreme care should be taken to see that the pupils are given the correct method of attack in making a drawing. They should be made to follow this instruction just as conscientiously as they are required to attempt correct execution in woodwork. In drawing, as in woodwork, slovenly habits come handier to some pupils, and, if allowed to become fixed, they will cause sorrow to the pupil and misunderstanding later on. In the very first drawing, for example, and all others, insist on having lightly penciled blocking out lines of indefinite length--lines that are just visible, that is all. Do not allow the pupil to form the habit of drawing a heavy line between two points previously located. It is needless to say that the pencil must be of good lead, properly sharpened, and kept sharp. It is an excellent plan to insist that all construction or blocking out lines be left just as originally drawn, no eraser being used at all. If lightly made, as they should be, they will be inconspicuous in the finished drawing. They will be proof positive that the method of procedure has been the correct one, will save the pupil's time, and give him a lightness of touch that will come in to excellent advantage later on. After the drawing has been laid out in light lines and inspected by the teacher, the lines that represent outlines of the object can be gone over a second time and made to stand out.

In eighth grade mechanical drawing, the first four groups review the principles introduced in the seventh grade. They are in the form of problems to be solved, however, and thus necessitate thought on the part of the pupil.

In the solving of these problems a carefully made freehand, dimensioned working drawing is first required. This, when correct, is followed with a mechanical drawing, full size and without dimensions. It will be noted that no attempt has been made heretofore to have the pupils make freehand working drawings or sketches. It has been the author's experience that better results are obtained by introducing the freehand drawings after the pupil has been taught and has had experience in the exactness of the mechanical drawing.

The working drawings of this grade introduce no new principles but give opportunity for practice in more difficult combinations of elements. They provide opportunity for acquiring greater facility in handling the instruments which results in drawings that are to be used in the shops. While the drawings are copied from plates, as in the seventh grade, the pupil is permitted to modify the designs within certain limitations, with one problem in original design, structural and decorative.

In high school drawing more time is allowed and the drawing becomes more of a subject in itself, requiring more and deeper thought on the part of the pupil. The high school drawing course is complete in itself. The first four groups are given mainly as problems in inking but they furnish a review of that part of the eighth grade drawing incidentally. They also furnish a familiar starting point for the high school work and make of the high school course a complete whole. High school drawing is best given by a specialist.

As in the eighth grade, these problems are to be solved and drawn freehand with dimensions. Afterward they are drawn mechanically and inked. The inking of problems is specified in only the first four groups in the outline for drawing. The amount of inking to be done thereafter will best be determined by the instructor. Too much inking has a tendency to result in careless penciling. It is for the instructor to determine when his class is doing its best in both penciling and inking. The problems of these latter groups are well calculated to necessitate thought and study and the instructor will do well to make much of this part of the subject.

The making of high school working drawings is placed early in the course that they may be ready to use in the shop by the time the exercises in joint work preparatory to their application, are completed. These working drawings are to be original as far as possible. Plates of suitable projects are to be provided to give the necessary starting points.

SHOP ORGANIZATION

In many cities the custom of building basements high out of the ground serves to mitigate some of the evils, by giving a fair degree of light and ventilation. Any basement, however, that is formed with a cement floor directly on the ground will be damp in the spring and fall when the heating apparatus ceases to force warm air thru the rooms. The result upon tools, upon wood, and upon the health of those who must spend their time in such surroundings is not a matter of speculation.

Any subject to be taught to the best advantage must not only be a subject that will win the respect of the pupils but it must be given surroundings that will not tend to degrade it in the eyes of the immature student. Excellent work has been done in basement rooms and excellent discipline maintained under very adverse conditions but it has been in spite of these conditions and not because they do not influence the student unfavorably. In spite of the instructor's best efforts to create a feeling of respect toward the basement shopwork similar to that entertained toward the academic work, pupils in going from the comfortably furnished rooms above, in which the decorator's art has helped to make everything agreeable to the eye, unconsciously assume an attitude in their first conduct and deportment that places the shop instructor at a disadvantage.

The chief objection, aside from cost, to placing shops above ground is the noise. This objection has been met, and can easily be met by any competent architect. The accompanying floor plans are indicative. Fig. 1.

In some high schools, the shops are entirely separated from the main or academic classrooms. This is unsatisfactory, as any one familiar with high school organization knows. The frequent change of classes after short periods makes the going from one building to another a matter of serious moment, especially in our northern winter climate.

Shopwork has won its place fairly in our school courses and it is encouraging to note an increasing tendency on the part of progressive communities to place shop and drafting-room in environment calculated to create a feeling of respect, to give dignity equal to that of other school subjects, and to provide favorable conditions for the best working of materials.

In the grammar schools the problem is but slightly different. In a city of any size, shopwork will need to be given in centers. The alternative of a shop in each school with an instructor going from shop to shop on different days of the week is hardly practicable. The equipment of a shop is a matter of too great cost to have it lying idle part of the school time. There is added disadvantage in that a peripatetic shop instructor cannot "keep up" his several shops with divided interest as well as he can keep up one in which he works constantly.

The best plan is to have a center or shop located favorably for several neighboring schools and install an instructor in this center. The pupils are to be sent to him from a sufficient number of schools to occupy his entire time at this shop.

Here again the basement makes its appeal to school authorities first, the basement of some one of the grammar schools being utilized for a shop center. Since almost all of the pupils come from other schools, there is no excuse, other than economy, in placing grammar school manual training shops in basements of schools already established. If the high school shopwork suffers a disadvantage by being placed in basement rooms, grammar school shopwork suffers more, and with less excuse.

Since domestic science cannot well be taught in basements, and is objectionable on main floors because of noise and odors, and since there is no reason for having the laboratories directly connected with any grammar school building, the best plan is to erect a special building to house both manual training and domestic science. The cost need not be great and the building may be erected upon grounds of some one of the grammar schools. Evanston, Illinois, public schools offer a good illustration. Figs. 2 and 3.

The proper placing of centers in a community will depend upon the number of pupils to be cared for, the distance they must travel to get to the center, and the site available.

The chief objection offered against the one-half day period is that the pupil becomes tired, exhausted, and therefore disinterested and troublesome before the close of the period. Where the full two hours and a half are devoted entirely to shopwork, especially if the shopwork is of such a nature as to make little appeal to the interest of the pupil, this argument is valid. If, however, each period has its recitation on assigned study and its demonstration on the new work to be presented there remains but two hours of work requiring the student to be on his feet and, if the interest is what it should be, very few boys will complain of fatigue. The writer makes it a custom to give, in the place of the conventional recess, a short five minute rest period. Boys are permitted to talk and move about the shop but he has found that as many boys prefer to continue their woodwork as prefer to rest.

If the one-fourth day period is to be used, it will be necessary to give recitations and demonstrations on alternate days, and will necessitate introducing the work lower than the seventh grade. It is hardly profitable to begin serious, systematic work lower than the seventh grade, and when it is begun in seventh grade it is hardly possible to make it serious with a time allotment of less than one-half day each week.

There is not the same need for recess in shopwork as in academic work. A five minute rest period is sufficient to permit pupils to make known to each other their wishes or information. In this way it is possible to dismiss the pupils ten minutes earlier than they otherwise would be, thus allowing the morning class extra time for reaching home.

In the high school the time allotment is generally permitted to be governed by the periods arranged for the academic subjects. The common arrangement is to give two consecutive periods equal to two of the recitation periods of the academic subjects for shopwork and another for drawing each day thruout the week. If the periods are one hour each, which is unusual in high schools tho common in colleges, but one period is given to the shop.

Where manual training has been given serious consideration in the seventh and eighth grades of the grammar schools under competent instructors it ought to be possible to cover the necessary benchwork in wood in the first half of the freshman year of the high school. This will leave the second half for turning or for benchwork in metal, preferably the latter.

To mechanical drawing the first half of the freshman year of one period each day should be devoted, followed in the second half by freehand drawing, perspective and design.

The mechanical drawing of the grammar schools, it will be noted in the lesson outlines, takes the first twelve weeks or lessons of each year. Mechanical drawing in grammar schools is usually presented in one of three ways. First, by having the pupil make his drawing then immediately make the object drawn in wood, carrying on woodwork and drawing side by side thruout the year. Second, by having the pupil make the object in wood first, followed by the drawing. Third, by taking the first ten or twelve weeks of the year for making up all the drawings of that year, following this with a continuous application in wood.

After experimenting thru a number of years the writer finds the third practice possesses many marked advantages. Among other things that make it more satisfactory are the following: It permits concentration of the pupil's attention upon one thing at a time. Where woodwork and drawing are carried on side by side or even where they alternate the pupil's attention and interest are divided. So much more interesting do the pupils find the woodwork with its freer activity that the drawing suffers immeasurably, it being almost impossible to get anything like the proper attitude toward the technique of drawing when the young pupil is allowed to see the immediate application in wood all around him. The instructor's struggles for neatness and accuracy in the drawings are no match for the barbarous haste of the beginner in his desire to get thru with the drawing and get at the woodwork. It is impossible to get concentration on drawing in a woodshop with tools all about and the knowledge on the part of the pupil that only the drawing separates him from the tools.

Second, it enables the shop instructor to tell what supplies are going to be needed for the woodwork and to get them delivered in time without returning from his summer's vacation several weeks before school begins. In the twelve weeks of drawing the woodworking tools and equipment can be looked over and put in order in plenty of time without breaking into the summer months that belong to the instructor. Where the woodwork begins at the beginning of school in September the instructor must either take the fore part of his vacation at the close of school to put his tools in shape or, if he has them simply cleaned and vaselined by the pupils and stores them for the summer, he must come back several weeks before school. This is true whether he does his own sharpening or has it done, and the advantage in having woodwork begin some weeks later than school is very manifest.

Third, this latter arrangement gives the pupil an intelligent preview of the whole year's work in wood thru the drawings he makes in the first ten or twelve weeks.

Mechanical drawing, even in the grades, has a right to a clean, quiet, well lighted room without unnecessary distractions either to the eye or ear. This, with a definite understanding on the pupil's part that drawing technique is the major and the utility of the drawing the minor consideration, should put the pupil in the right attitude toward his drawing work and make it possible to secure the best drawings he is capable of producing. No one, not even a finished draftsman, could produce good drawings surrounded by the noise and dust of neighboring woodworkers. Under the alternating system there are always slow pupils who, if they finish their drawings before they make the application, must do it while the others are working in wood. Add to the noise and dust this pupil's feeling that he too ought to be at his woodwork and the limit of unfavorable conditions for producing a drawing are reached. Making the year's drawings the first twelve weeks of the year enables one to avoid these unfavorable conditions.

Fourth, this arrangement makes possible a graduated transition from the quietness and restrictedness of the academic class room to the noise and greater freedom of the woodshop.

When beginning pupils come to the grammar school manual training shop for the first time at the beginning of school in September, it is with an overplus of energy and noise. To reduce these sufficiently to permit of getting anything like satisfactory results in shopwork, the instructor is placed at once squarely before a large problem in discipline. This problem is very greatly simplified by introducing the pupil to ten or twelve weeks or lessons in mechanical drawing before beginning the woodwork.

Conditions surrounding a pupil in mechanical drawing classes are very similar to those he finds in his regular academic classes and he can readily be brought to understand that quietness, and orderliness with seriousness of purpose are as necessary a part of his manual training as of his academic work. After this attitude has been fixed in the pupil's mind in connection with his manual training thru the mechanical drawing when the transition to woodwork is made, where more freedom must be allowed, the pupil will be better able to distinguish between legitimate noise and noise that is entirely unnecessary, and between freedom and license.

In the seventh grade the necessary study of tools and processes occupies the pupil's time fully. In the eighth grade opportunity offers itself for introducing such subjects as wood structure, tree growth, lumbering, and milling. In high school, the pupil should be made familiar with the most common woods, their classification, characteristics, and uses.

High school pupils should be assigned outside readings on forestry. They should secure and classify specimens of the more common woods and should be able to recognize the tree by leaf, fruit, bark, wood and tree form. See Figs. 4, 5, and 6.

In the grammar grades, mounted specimens should be prepared illustrative of tree structure, shrinkage, defects, etc. As in the high school, pupils should be encouraged to seek and prepare specimens illustrative of the subjects under consideration.

Share on: WhatsApp @Hash Facebook Tweet