Read Ebook: The Condition and Tendencies of Technical Education in Germany by Chamberlain Arthur Henry

Font size: 10 px 15 px 20 px 25 px 30 px 35 px

Background color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Text color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Apply/Save settings

Ebook has 255 lines and 26277 words, and 6 pages

The writer of this paper was thoroughly impressed with the work of the Sunday classes as seen in Leipzig, Saxony, during the summer of 1899. His first introduction to such work was made, when on joining a group of boys, several of them carrying draughting-boards, he was conducted by them to their school. The general character and deportment of the boys, the spirit and enthusiasm manifested by them, and the thoughtful and intelligent quality of the work produced, fully justified in his own mind, the validity and worth of the Sunday class instruction.

As between the schools located in the cities and those in the smaller towns and country places, there is some slight difference. They may be classified as rural or city schools, on account of their location. The distinction lies rather in the arrangement of their curricula, the needs of the students in the particular locality being kept in mind. In the rural schools the programme of studies is somewhat general, comprising the German language, arithmetic, mensuration, nature study; and in some instances may be added to these, geography, German history, drawing, gymnastics and music. This programme is elective to the extent that the capacity and previous education of the pupil are considered, and too, the ability of the teacher, local conditions and the time spent by the individual student. Such schools are admonished not to take on the character of technical institutions, but rather to continue the general education begun in the Volksschulen. Only under certain conditions is less than four hours per week of instruction permissible.

In Prussia the city continuation schools are of two grades, each grade made up of a number of classes. In the lower grade schools, instruction is given in accordance with the particular trade or calling the pupil is to follow. In the upper grade, work is much the same, proficiency being the chief additional feature. When six hours of work is the minimum, language, arithmetic, elementary geometry and drawing, form the body of the course; while penmanship, geography, history, grammar and nature study all are taken up in connection with the reading work. Business forms are not overlooked. In the more fully equipped schools where the teachers are prepared for such branches, higher mathematics, mechanics, physics and advanced drawing are taken up.

If, as before stated, the various types of continuation schools overlap, the same is true regarding the trade and industrial continuation schools. While in many instances the work in the latter schools is of a general character, aiming to supplement or round out the education of the pupil, we find that many of the original schools of this class have developed into a form of special or trade school. This is brought about through pressure from without, as it were. When a certain industry predominates in a locality supporting a continuation school, it is only fair to suppose that the work done, general though it may be, will be colored to some extent at least, by the demands of such industry. If this process of merging is carried sufficiently far, as is in many cases done, the school may lose almost or entirely its original trend, and from a Fortbildungsschule, fall into the class of trade or Fachschulen.

In the main then, the instruction given in a continuation school proper, is either of a theoretical nature or involves some form of drawing perhaps, thus rendering any other than an ordinary school room unnecessary for class use. In the city of Leipzig the situation is dissimilar to that in some north German cities. Here the classes are arranged according to the various trades followed, as bookbinders, printers, lithographers, bakers, metal workers, workers in wood and stone, etc. There are again in Southern Germany simply schools of drawing with special reference to the various trades and industries. In addition to these are classes of a general nature for boys not following special trades. Such schools however, cannot be found in the smaller towns or in the country. Certain other Saxon cities have schools of somewhat similar character.

In the Consular Report, Vol. 54, No. 202, page 447, 1898, Mr. J. C. Monoghan says, writing under the title Technical Education in Germany:

"The supplementary schools are for the people who have to work, what Chautauquas, summer schools, and university extension courses are for others.--Parties in politico-economic circles have found that the system of common school education under which boys and girls were given an ordinary education in reading, writing, arithmetic etc., up to their fourteenth year, was inadequate, partially if not wholly, to the ends aimed at in such a system. To supply this defect it was urged, and finally proposed and favorably acted upon, that graduates of the common schools, boys especially, in some few cases girls too, should continue to get instruction a certain number of hours a week. This was made compulsory. Manufacturers, shopkeepers, and mechanics in whose employ such boys were found, and not the parents, were made responsible for the boys' attendance. In these schools, as indicated in the foregoing, the boys get as good an idea as possible of the trade or branch of business in which they are employed. As a rule, the hours of attendance are early in the morning or a certain number of afternoons in the week. Sunday mornings are not thought too sacred for such work. It seems to be an acknowledgement that the years hitherto given to a boy in which to get an education, viz., from his sixth to his fourteenth year, are not enough to prepare him for the struggle for life that he has to enter upon. Men have told me, successful merchants and agents here, that they owe more to the hours spent in the developing or supplementary schools from the practical character of the instruction given and the information imparted, than to the many years spent in the common schools. While one is hardly willing to believe this, there can be no doubt of the good work done, and being done, by the schools referred to."

The Handwerkschulen in Berlin are very similar to Fortbildungsschulen in Leipzig for example. These schools have seen a marvelous development during the past few years. They have a technical quality, giving much attention to drawing. The sessions are in the evening, eight hours per week, the fee being six marks the half year. They are attended by journeymen and apprentices who come recommended by their employers. In connection with these schools various Sunday classes are conducted throughout the city, each center specializing along certain trade lines.

The Berlin Handwerker Verein is a type of continuation school, sustained not by the state but by an association. The Verein, founded in 1859, has for its object the promotion of general culture, a partial knowledge at least of the several callings represented, and good manners . The moral and ethical elements are not lacking. Here public lectures of real merit are given, together with music, gymnastics, and instruction in general and technical subjects. Boys of good character, over seventeen years of age, are admitted. The families of the boys in attendance are also allowed to avail themselves of such general exercises, lectures, music, etc., as the school offers.

What may also be styled as belonging in a sense in the continuation school category is the German Association for the Diffusion of Popular Education, with headquarters in Berlin. Branches of this association are scattered throughout various parts of the Empire.

In the year 1869, the industrial code provided that all boys under eighteen years of age might, at the discretion of the local authorities, be compelled to attend school. It is thus evident that the local or State authority was here consulted, rather than the General Government. At the present time however, when the adjustment of this matter is not in the hands of local authority, the employer must, if those engaged with him desire so to do, allow such boys to attend school at their option. In some States however, Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse and Baden, compulsory school laws are in force among all boys fourteen to eighteen years of age. At present the law of 1891 is active and the portion touching our problem is here given:

"Employers are required to give the necessary time, to be determined eventually by the competent authorities, to their workingmen under eighteen years of age who attend an educational establishment recognized by the communal administration or by the State as an adult's school. Instruction shall not be given on Sunday except where the hours are so fixed that the pupils are not prevented from attending the principal religious exercise or a religious exercise of their faith especially conducted for them with the consent of the ecclesiastical authorities. The central administration may, until October 1, 1894, accord exemptions from the last provision to adult schools already in existence, attendance upon which is not obligatory.

"For purposes of this law schools giving instruction in manual work and domestic duties to women shall be considered as adult schools."

This citation points out that the Sunday class work must not conflict with the religious services. There is a strong sentiment in many places in favor of a repeal of such laws as prohibit Sunday classes at such times as church services are held. Many of the clergy are opposed to the extending of Sunday continuation schools, while for the most part the government authorities are favorable to such extension.

As regards the compulsory age limit, Prussia of all the German states is following out the option given the individual States. It is worthy of note that she declares that where freedom is allowed, boys are more likely to continue in school after their eighteenth year. It is insisted also that with the restrictions removed, a deeper interest is excited in the school studies. The statement is made however that in Prussia two thirds of the industrial continuation schools have compulsory attendance laws in force as the local authorities may determine. Certain it is that much stress is laid upon the ethical side of instruction in the continuation schools and it is agreed that the compulsory school should not transplant the regular continuation school, except where it seems absolutely necessary to do so. In Bavaria for example, where the age limit by law is thirteen, the compulsory school has a place for the time being at least.

In Berlin, a century ago, Sunday afternoon classes were inaugurated, with a programme no more varied than that furnished by the three R's. Apprentices not equipped with sufficient school training were forced to attend the schools. In 1869 the power was wrested from the trade guilds and the elective system resulted, later producing the Elementary Continuation School. The local city government founded at a later date three such schools, and in these a more diversified curriculum was operated, adding to the three R's, German composition and literature, modern languages, natural science, political science, law, bookkeeping and drawing. For various reasons these schools were not attended by a full measure of success and the city authorities formulated the plan of placing the continuation schools in some of the higher institutions of learning, courses to be operative in winter only. Later, from the preparatory school, which fitted for the continuation school proper, grew up the technical continuation school.

There are at the present twelve schools of the continuation type in Berlin. A large attendance is desired, for with large classes groups of various intellectual standards may be formed. The student is free to elect subjects--as between certain languages, mathematics or art studies. The Director of the school, by keeping in touch with the employers in the various trades and shops, can thus control the attendance and shape the course of the lines of work offered.

Some ten years since, two special lines of instruction were withdrawn from the continuation school proper--the carpenters' school and the Gewerbesaal, comprising work in drawing and theory involved in machine construction and the like. Courses for turners are offered in the carpenters' schools. In Berlin there are in excess of nine centers for the last named school and ten centers for the Gewerbesaal, the winter classes running up to 2000 and 850 pupils respectively.

This example serves to illustrate the fact mentioned in a previous connection, viz., that the Fortbildungsschule was in some cases merged into a special school, for here in reality a Fach or trade institution has developed from the original continuation school. This practice has been going on more or less extensively among the various schools; and in Berlin especially, the continuation school has been the foundation of most of the Fachschulen. Something more will be said in this connection in the section under trade schools.

Regarding the continuation schools for girls and women a word may be added. As with the boys' schools, so these designed for girls were put on foot, partly at least, from an ethical standpoint. Girls spending their days in the factory and shop were in need of a refining influence, and this the continuation school afforded. Courses were offered in the German language, arithmetic, sewing and dressmaking. The efforts made to give girls this training were not entirely successful. So many objections to Sunday work were brought forward that it was discontinued. The burdens of the day fell so heavily upon the girls that they were not ambitious to attend evening classes. At the present time the schools are more largely attended by girls who, during the day, remain in the family, and in the school take up the household arts, sewing, cutting out, and the like, and also languages, mathematics, geography, etc., gymnastics and music, shorthand and typewriting. It is hoped soon to introduce cookery in all girls' schools. Drawing is given much attention.

There are in Berlin, nine municipal continuation schools for girls, which are, as the name indicates, maintained by the city.

TRADE SCHOOLS

As has been indicated in another connection, the classification of trade schools as such, is somewhat uncertain. It has been shown that many of the present schools for special trades have evolved from the continuation schools of the past. In the transition state it is sometimes quite difficult to definitely place a certain school, whether in the trade continuation, or trade group proper, or to class it with the Industrieschulen. The trade continuation schools have largely superseded the regular trade schools, in many localities at least, and where this condition exists, trade instruction seems to be losing ground, here the Fortbildungsschulen on the one hand, and regular apprenticeships on the other, coming in to supplant trade teaching.

The seeming contradictory statements made here must be interpreted in the spirit rather than in the letter, if the full meaning and significance of the trade school is to be grasped. Trades are taught as formerly. The point made is that while the trade school, per se, is doing its work, boys are, more and more, being trained for their trades in the so-called trades continuation schools and as apprentices in the shops. The latter form of training will be spoken of elsewhere in this section of the paper.

We have noted in following the work of the continuation school, that the attempt has been mainly toward the teaching of theoretical subjects, the practical lines being carried forward in the regular daily occupations of the individuals. Hence the trade is not held specifically in mind, although the desired end is always kept in view. In the trade schools on the other hand, the work is largely of a practical nature, dealing with some particular occupation. The foregoing statement may be taken as fairly representing the Fachschule point of view, but it should be observed that while these schools are special trade schools, training for example iron workers, or joiners, or tailors, there is a differentiation within the general class. I refer to the Gewerbeschulen, where theoretical lessons are sometimes taught. These schools will be given mention in the secondary group.

Admission to the trade schools is gained usually at fourteen years of age, the length of each course covering a period of three years. The schools are in receipt of financial aid from both state and local governments.

To simplify our study, we shall consider only such institutions as deal with a single trade each, leaving the schools for the building trades and the like, and those dealing with industrial art and drawing to be treated elsewhere. Specialization has been carried so far that the following lists of schools, each training for its own particular trade or calling, may be given. The list is arranged alphabetically and without reference to the relative importance of the various vocations, or to the number of schools. Such schools are now found pretty generally in the larger cities throughout the Empire. Some of these are day schools; some evening schools, and others again offer both day and evening courses and Sunday instruction.

SINGLE TRADE SCHOOLS

Schools for Bakers " " Barbers and Hairdressers " " Basketmakers, Wickerworkers, and Strawplaiters " " Blacksmiths " " Bookbinders " " Carpenters and Cabinetmakers " " Chimney Sweeps " " Confectioners " " Coopers " " Gardeners " " Glaziers " " Joiners " " Marine Machinists " " Masons " " Painters " " Paperhangers and Decorators " " Plumbers " " Photographers " " Potters " " Printers " " Saddlers, Trimmers and Trunkmakers " " Shoemakers " " Tailors " " Tinsmiths " " Toymakers " " Upholsterers " " Wagonmakers and Wheelwrights " " Watch and Clockmakers " " Woodcarvers

Some of the above named institutions are in certain localities styled apprenticeship schools. These train workmen and foremen of a minor degree. Shop work is offered, and in some cases pure and applied art as well.

The evening work of the so-called Artisans' Schools of Berlin, are deserving of special mention. There are two such institutions, called respectively school number one and school number two. The first was established in 1880; the second in 1892. The aim of these schools is to give to tradesmen and apprentices in their leisure hours such a knowledge of drawing, the arts and sciences, as will find an application in their own lines of work.

The grade of instruction varies from quite elementary work to that for advanced students, the latter being obliged to present evidence of fitness before entering.

The following courses are offered, the figures indicating the number of hours per week devoted to each.

Arithmetic 2 Algebra 2 Geometry 2 Trigonometry 2 Analytical geometry and calculus 1 Mathematical problems involving physics and mechanics 2 Descriptive geometry 4 Bookkeeping 2 Physics 4 Mechanics 2 Electro-technics 4 Chemistry 4 Chemistry and pharmacy 4 Free-hand drawing 2-4 Aquarelle 4 Projection 4 Ornament 4 Trade drawing according to occupation 4 Modeling in wax and clay 4 Decorative painting 4

In addition to the foregoing, school number two offers:

Chasing 4 Practical wrought-iron work 4 Sketching and calculating the elements of machinery 2

The courses continue for two years.

It is interesting to note that whereas certain enactments are in force regarding the Sunday sessions of the Fortbildungsschulen, there are no such restrictions placed upon the Fachschulen, Sunday morning classes being held at the discretion of the school authorities.

Let us refer to our table of single trade schools as given above. The statements which follow have in most cases been taken from data relating to the schools of Berlin, and may be said to fairly represent the general existing conditions throughout the Empire.

In the school for bakers, instruction is given one day weekly for two and one half hours. The theoretical work is made up of chemistry and bookkeeping.

In the barbers' and hairdressers' schools, instruction is carried on six days each week, four hours daily, the school continuing six months of the year, covering the winter period. Each class receives fourteen hours instruction per week. While the bakers' school is supported by the guild, the barbers' school is jointly maintained by state, city and guild. The curriculum includes shaving, hair cutting, and hair dressing, wig making, and ladies' hair dressing. A tuition of three marks is charged for the term, in the case of apprentices, and six marks for journeymen; a charge five times as great is made for ladies' hair dressing, and for the surgical lectures, ten marks.

The guild, state and municipality maintain the school for basketmakers and wickerworkers. Apprentices receive instruction free, four marks each semester being charged the journeymen and adults. Attendance is compulsory on the part of apprentices of guild members. Four hours work per week are given, on Saturdays. The annual expenses of the school, are about five hundred and fifty dollars. Four courses are offered, as follows: first, general basket making and wicker furniture; second, making of small wicker furniture; third, large wicker furniture; fourth, fine and artistic wicker working.

In the blacksmiths' school the instruction is for two hours, one day each week. Theoretical work in horseshoeing, and drawing related to the course are taught.

The city and guild support the school for bookbinders. The students are both apprentices and journeymen. They work week day evenings and Sunday mornings. The purpose is not to produce tradesmen, but rather to make more proficient those engaged in some form of bookbinding, and to this end applicants must have had experience amounting to two years work before entering the school. All students must be grounded in the general elements underlying the trade before they are allowed to take up any phase as a specialty. No fee is charged the apprentices of guild members; others pay five marks per term; journeymen pay nine marks per term.

In the cabinetmakers' school, all lines of work pertaining to the trade are taken up, drawing and designing for trade purposes; free-hand drawing; modeling, carving; properties of woods, etc. Instruction is given week day evenings and Sunday forenoons. Four marks are charged for the first term in the drawing course and for each subsequent term, two marks. The subjects taken up are: chemistry, free-hand drawing, projection, trade drawing, perspective and shadows, drawing from cast, modeling and wood carving, joinery. The school is under public control.

In most of the remaining trade schools, instruction is pretty generally given on week day evenings and Sunday mornings, the apprentices of guild members paying no fee, a small charge being made for outsiders. The support comes from city, state and guild in most cases. In the school for masons however, there is a preparatory course and also a carpenters' course, the whole covering a three years term. In this school the instruction is thorough, covering plans, drawings and specifications; stone, brick, and wood construction; foundations, arches, staircases, roofs, and the like. Almost without exception in all these schools the winter attendance is greater than that in the summer.

Certain individual schools throughout the Empire deserve special mention, the Royal Fachschule of Iserlohn, the first in Prussia, being a notable example. Here handwork is combined with industrial art adapted to metal work. Boys who entered the trade were, in the early days of the school, found to be in need of both theoretical and practical work, so each has a place in the curriculum. The length of the course is three years, covering the trades of designers, wood carvers, moulders, founders, turners, chasers, engravers, gilders, and etchers. Here are taught drawing in all its branches; modeling in wax and clay; history of art and metal work; elements of chemistry and physics; mathematics; German. Practical work in the department in which the student is engaged, is given, the student stating on entrance what subject he desires to take up. The time of instruction is from eight to twelve, in the winter season, and from seven to eleven in the summer. The afternoon session is from two to six. In the engineering trade school, three hours per day are devoted to ornamental drawing, German, physics and arithmetic. As the instruction is planned for working people it is largely theoretical.

The Reimscheid school is of the apprenticeship order. Attention is given the making of edge tools and such other implements as are manufactured in the district. All students take drawing and design as applied to iron work. They are made acquainted with the different kinds of iron work that can be carried on in the home; are schooled in the use of the tools made; learn regarding the markets at which they are sold, and the various methods of their manufacture. Thus a general understanding of the principles underlying his trade is given the boy and he becomes acquainted with the commercial side of his calling while undergoing the necessary preparation in manipulation. The theoretical work is given in the morning and what shop practice is offered is in the afternoon from two to seven. The tuition is twenty dollars per year.

The Pottery Trade School at Hohr Grenzhausen, Prussia, is under State control. There are day and evening classes, the former attended for the most part by the sons of manufacturers; the evening classes by men and women who are employed otherwise during the day. There are Sunday classes also. Decorated stoneware is given much attention. The day class boys enter with a fairly good knowledge of drawing and have perhaps attended the Fortbildungsschule. Drawing, descriptive geometry, modeling in clay and wax, new forms of vessels and original ornamentation, painting, designing and decorative art, manufacture of earthenware, lectures and study of collections, make up the curriculum. Any original model made becomes the property of the father of the boy, or of the person financially supporting such boy during his attendance at school. Two duplicates of the model must be left at the school. The courses are three years, daily sessions, Saturdays excepted. The fees are nominal, being only five dollars per year for the day classes, thirty hours weekly, and one dollar for evening work, two hours weekly. Pupils living outside the municipality pay six dollars per year for day instruction.

The Furtwangen, or Black Forest schools are made up of several divisions, giving rather a high class of instruction. Clock making, wood carving, and straw plaiting, are largely carried on.

This paper would not be complete without some mention of the system of apprenticeship in vogue in Germany. The Lehrwerkst?tten or apprentice shops play a considerable part in the industrial life of the Empire. In some instances they are maintained in connection with the trade schools, or again, are semi-private or separate shops. The apprenticeship shops on the one hand, and the continuation schools upon the other, are doing much of the work formerly undertaken by the trade schools proper. While manufacturing upon a larger scale is recognized as possessing advantages over the smaller productive plants, it has seemed wise to hold to the handicrafts, in a measure at least. The apprentice system helps to preserve the traditions and sentiments of the German people, by handing down these handicrafts. The associations, vereins, and guilds of past time, are to-day, through the aid of legislation, coming to the fore, and bringing with them many boys trained in the shops under the masters. To show the power and scope of the guild, and in some cases it is incumbent upon a community to form a guild whether or no, let me give the following quotation:

Share on: WhatsApp @Hash Facebook Tweet