Read Ebook: The Butterfly Book A Popular Guide to a Knowledge of the Butterflies of North America by Holland W J William Jacob

Font size: 10 px 15 px 20 px 25 px 30 px 35 px

Background color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Text color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Apply/Save settings

Ebook has 1973 lines and 208669 words, and 40 pages

INTRODUCTION

CHAP. PAGE

The Place of Butterflies in the Animal Kingdom; The Principles of Scientific Arrangement; The Species; The Genus; The Family, etc.; Scientific Names; Synonyms; Popular Names.

Early Writers; Later Writers; Periodicals.

THE BOOK

DIGRESSIONS AND QUOTATIONS

PAGE Immortality 57 Hugo's "Flower to Butterfly" 74 Superstitions 90 Luther's Saddest Experience 100 A Race after a Butterfly 127 Suspicious Conduct 136 Collecting in Japan 149 Faunal Regions 161 Widely Distributed Butterflies 171 The Butterflies' Fad 186 Fossil Insects 195 In the Face of the Cold 224 Uncle Jotham's Boarder 233 Mimicry 235 The Utility of Entomology 256 Size 271 Instinct 280 Red Rain 299 For a Design of a Butterfly Resting on a Skull 303 The Caterpillar and the Ant 316 Collections and Collectors 337 Exchanges 344

FIG. PAGE 1. Egg of Basilarchia disippus, magnified 3 2. Egg of Basilarchia disippus, natural size 3 3. Egg of Papilio turnus, enlarged 4 4. Egg of Anosia plexippus, magnified 4 5. Egg of Anosia plexippus, natural size 4 6. Egg of Anthocharis genutia, magnified 4 7. Egg of Lycaena pseudargiolus, magnified 4 8. Egg of Melitaea pha?ton, magnified 4 9. Micropyle of egg of Pieris oleracea, magnified 5 10. Eggs of Grapta comma, magnified 5 11. Eggs of Vanessa antiopa, magnified 5 12. Caterpillar of Papilio philenor 6 13. Head of caterpillar of Papilio asterias, magnified 6 14. Head of caterpillar of Anosia plexippus, magnified 6 15. Head of caterpillar of Anosia plexippus, side view, enlarged 7 16. Caterpillar of Anosia plexippus, natural size 7 17. Fore leg of caterpillar of Vanessa antiopa, enlarged 7 18. Anterior segments of caterpillar of A. plexippus 7 19. Proleg of caterpillar of Vanessa antiopa, enlarged 7 20. Caterpillar of Basilarchia disippus 8 21. Early stages of goatweed butterfly 9 22. Head of caterpillar of Papilio troilus 9 23. Caterpillar of milkweed butterfly changing into chrysalis 11 24. Chrysalis of milkweed butterfly 12 25. Chrysalis of Papilio philenor 12 26. Caterpillar and chrysalis of Pieris protodice 12 27. Chrysalis of Pieris oleracea 13 28. Butterfly emerging from chrysalis 13 29. Head of milkweed butterfly, showing parts 14 30. Cross-section of sucking-tube of butterfly 15 31. Longitudinal section of the head of the milkweed butterfly 15 32. Interior structure of head of milkweed butterfly 16 33. Labial palpus of butterfly 16 34. Legs of butterfly 17 35. Parts of leg of butterfly 17 36. Scales on wing of butterfly 18 37. Androconia from wing of butterfly 18 38. Outline of wing of butterfly 20 39. Arrangement of scales on the wing of a butterfly 20 40. Figure of wing, showing names of veins 21 41. Internal anatomy of caterpillar of milkweed butterfly 22 42. Internal anatomy of milkweed butterfly 23 43. Plan for folding net-ring 27 44. Insect-net 27 45. Plan for making a cheap net 27 46. Cyanide-jar 29 47. Paper cover for cyanide 29 48. Method of pinching a butterfly 30 49. Cheap form of breeding-cage 35 50. Breeding-cage 36 51. Butterfly in envelope 38 52. Method of making envelopes 38 53. Setting-board 39 54. Setting-block 39 55. Butterfly on setting-block 39 56. Setting-needle 40 57. Setting-board with moth upon it 40 58. Butterfly pinned on setting-board 41 59. Drying-box 41 60. Drying-box 42 61. Apparatus for inflating larvae 45 62. Tip of inflating-tube 46 63. Drying-oven 46 64. Drying-oven 47 65. Detail drawing of book-box 48 66. Detail drawing of box 48 67. Detail drawing of box 49 68. Insect-box 49 69. Detail drawing of drawer for cabinet 51 70. Detail drawing for paper bottom of box to take place of cork 52 71. Manner of arranging specimens in cabinet or box 52 72. Naphthaline cone 53 73. Butterflies packed for shipment 55 74. Forceps 56 75. Forceps 57 76. Antennae of butterfly 61 77. Antennae of moths 62 78. Neuration of genus Anosia 81 79. Swarm of milkweed butterflies, photographed at night 83 80. Neuration of genus Mechanitis 86 81. Neuration of genus Ceratinia 88 82. Neuration of genus Dircenna 89 83. Fore leg of female Dircenna klugi 89 84. Neuration of genus Heliconius 91 85. Young caterpillar of Vanessa antiopa 94 86. Neuration of genus Colaenis 95 87. Neuration of genus Dione 96 88. Neuration of genus Euptoieta 98 89. Neuration of genus Argynnis 101 90. Neuration of genus Brenthis 129 91. Neuration of genus Melitaea 138 92. Neuration of genus Phyciodes 151 93. Neuration of genus Eresia 157 94. Neuration of genus Synchlo? 159 95. Neuration of genus Grapta 163 96. Neuration of genus Vanessa 167 97. Neuration of genus Pyrameis 170 98. Neuration of genus Junonia 172 99. Neuration of genus Anartia 174 100. Neuration of genus Hypanartia 175 101. Neuration of genus Eunica 176 102. Neuration of genus Cystineura 177 103. Neuration of genus Callicore 178 104. Neuration of genus Timetes 179 105. Neuration of genus Hypolimnas 181 106. Neuration of genus Basilarchia 182 107. Leaf cut away at end by the caterpillar of Basilarchia 183 108. Hibernaculum of caterpillar of Basilarchia 183 109. Neuration of genus Adelpha 187 110. Neuration of genus Chlorippe 188 111. Neuration of genus Pyrrhanaea 192 112. Neuration of genus Ageronia 193 113. Neuration of genus Victorina 195 114. Neuration of genus Debis 199 115. Neuration of genus Satyrodes 200 116. Neuration of genus Neonympha 201 117. Neuration of genus Coenonympha 205 118. Neuration of genus Erebia 208 119. Neuration of genus Geirocheilus 211 120. Neuration of genus Neominois 212 121. Neuration of genus Satyrus 214 122. Neuration of genus OEneis 219 123. Caterpillars of OEneis macouni 221 124. Neuration of genus Libythea 226 125. Neuration of base of hind wing of genus Lemonias 228 126. Neuration of genus Lemonias 229 127. Neuration of genus Calephelis 232 128. Neuration of genus Eumaeus 237 129. Neuration of Thecla edwardsi 238 130. Neuration of Thecla melinus 242 131. Neuration of Thecla damon 246 132. Neuration of Thecla niphon 249 133. Neuration of Thecla titus 250 134. Neuration of genus Feniseca 251 135. Neuration of genus Chrysophanus 252 136. Neuration of Lycaena pseudargiolus 267 137. Neuration of Lycaena comyntas 268 138. Neuration of genus Dismorphia 273 139. Neuration of genus Neophasia 274 140. Neuration of genus Tachyris 276 141. Neuration of genus Pieris 277 142. Neuration of genus Nathalis 281 143. Neuration of genus Euchlo? 282 144. Neuration of genus Catopsilia 286 145. Neuration of genus Kricogonia 287 146. Neuration of genus Meganostoma 288 147. Neuration of genus Colias 289 148. Neuration of genus Terias 295 149. Neuration of genus Parnassius 305 An Astronomer's Conception of an Entomologist 317 150. Head and antenna of genus Pyrrhopyge 319 151. Neuration of genus Pyrrhopyge 319 152. Neuration of genus Eudamus 321 153. Antenna and neuration of genus Plestia 322 154. Neuration of genus Epargyreus 323 155. Neuration of genus Thorybes 324 156. Neuration of genus Achalarus 326 157. Antenna and neuration of genus Hesperia 327 158. Neuration of genus Systasea 329 159. Neuration of genus Pholisora 330 160. Neuration of genus Thanaos 332 161. Neuration of genus Amblyscirtes 340 162. Neuration of genus Pamphila 342 163. Neuration of genus Oarisma 343 164. Neuration of genus Ancyloxypha 345 165. Neuration of genus Copaeodes 346 166. Neuration of genus Erynnis 347 167. Neuration of genus Thymelicus 351 168. Neuration of genus Atalopedes 352 169. Neuration of genus Polites 353 170. Neuration of genus Hylephila 354 171. Neuration of genus Prenes 355 172. Neuration of genus Calpodes 355 173. Neuration of genus Lerodea 356 174. Neuration of genus Limochores 357 175. Neuration of genus Euphyes 360 176. Neuration of genus Oligoria 361 177. Neuration of genus Poanes 362 178. Neuration of genus Phycanassa 362 179. Neuration of genus Atrytone 364 180. Neuration of genus Lerema 366 181. Megathymus yuccae, ? 367 182. Larva of Megathymus yuccae 368 183. Chrysalis of Megathymus yuccae 368 The Popular Conception of an Entomologist 369

LIST OF COLORED PLATES

FACING PAGE

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

THE LIFE-HISTORY AND ANATOMY OF BUTTERFLIES

In studying any subject, it is always well, if possible, to commence at the beginning; and in studying the life of animals, or of a group of animals, we should endeavor to obtain a clear idea at the outset of the manner in which they are developed. It is a familiar saying that "all life is from an egg." This statement is scientifically true in wide fields which come under the eye of the naturalist, and butterflies are no exception to the rule.

THE EGGS OF BUTTERFLIES

The eggs of butterflies consist of a membranous shell containing a fluid mass composed of the germ of the future caterpillar and the liquid food which is necessary for its maintenance and development until it escapes from the shell. The forms of these eggs are various. Some are spherical, others hemispherical, conical, and cylindrical. Some are barrel-shaped; others have the shape of a cheese, and still others have the form of a turban. Many of them are angled, some depressed at the ends. Their surface is variously ornamented. Sometimes they are ribbed, the ribs running from the center outwardly and downwardly along the sides like the meridian lines upon a globe. Between these ribs there is frequently found a fine network of raised lines variously arranged. Sometimes the surface is covered with minute depressions, sometimes with a series of minute elevations variously disposed. As there is great variety in the form of the eggs, so also there is great variety in their color. Brown, blue, green, red, and yellow eggs occur. Greenish or greenish-white are common tints. The eggs are often ornamented with dots and lines of darker color. Species which are related to one another show their affinity even in the form of their eggs. At the upper end of the eggs of insects there are one or more curious structures, known as micropyles , through which the spermatozoa of the male find ingress and they are fertilized. These can only be seen under a good microscope.

The eggs are laid upon the food-plant upon which the caterpillar, after it is hatched, is destined to live, and the female reveals wonderful instinct in selecting plants which are appropriate to the development of the larva. As a rule, the larvae are restricted in the range of their food-plants to certain genera, or families of plants.

The eggs are deposited sometimes singly, sometimes in small clusters, sometimes in a mass. Fertile eggs, a few days after they have been deposited, frequently undergo a change of color, and it is often possible with a magnifying-glass to see through the thin shell the form of the minute caterpillar which is being developed within the egg. Unfruitful eggs generally shrivel and dry up after the lapse of a short time.

The period of time requisite for the development of the embryo in the egg varies. Many butterflies are single-brooded; others produce two or three generations during the summer in temperate climates, and even more generations in subtropical or tropical climates. In such cases an interval of only a few days, or weeks at the most, separates the time when the egg was deposited and the time when the larva is hatched. When the period of hatching, or emergence, has arrived, the little caterpillar cuts its way forth from the egg through an opening made either at the side or on the top. Many species have eggs which appear to be provided with a lid, a portion of the shell being separated from the remainder by a thin section, which, when the caterpillar has reached the full limit allowed by the egg, breaks under the pressure of the enlarging embryo within, one portion of the egg flying off, the remainder adhering to the leaf or twig upon which it has been deposited.

CATERPILLARS

The head is always conspicuous, composed of horny or chitinous material, but varying exceedingly in form and size. It is very rarely small and retracted. It is generally large, hemispherical, conical, or bilobed. In some families it is ornamented by horn-like projections. On the lower side are the mouth-parts, consisting of the upper lip, the mandibles, the antennae, or feelers, the under lip, the maxillae, and two sets of palpi, known as the maxillary and the labial palpi. In many genera the labium, or under lip, is provided with a short, horny projection known as the spinneret, through which the silk secreted by the caterpillar is passed. On either side, just above the mandibles, are located the eyes, or ocelli, which in the caterpillar are simple, round, shining prominences, generally only to be clearly distinguished by the aid of a magnifying-glass. These ocelli are frequently arranged in series on each side. The palpi are organs of touch connected with the maxillae and the labium, or under lip, and are used in the process of feeding, and also when the caterpillar is crawling about from place to place. The larva appears to guide itself in great part by means of the palpi.

The body of the caterpillar is covered by a thin skin, which often lies in wrinkled folds, admitting of great freedom of motion. The body is composed, as we have seen, of rings, or segments, the first three of which, back of the head, correspond to the thorax of the perfect insect, and the last nine to the abdomen of the butterfly. On each ring, with the exception of the second, the third, and the last, there is found on either side a small oval opening known as a spiracle, through which the creature breathes. As a rule, the spiracles of the first and eleventh rings are larger in size than the others.

Every caterpillar has on each of the first three segments a pair of legs, which are organs composed of three somewhat horny parts covered and bound together with skin, and armed at their extremities by a sharp claw . These three pairs of feet in the caterpillar are always known as the fore legs, and correspond to the six which are found in the butterfly or the moth. In addition, in most cases, we find four pairs of prolegs on the under side of the segments from the sixth to the ninth, and another pair on the last segment, which latter pair are called the anal prolegs. These organs, which are necessary to the life of the caterpillar, do not reappear in the perfect insect, but are lost when the transformation from the caterpillar to the chrysalis takes place. There are various modifications of this scheme of foot-like appendages, only the larger and more highly developed forms of lepidoptera having as many pairs of prolegs as have been enumerated.

The bodies of caterpillars are variously ornamented: many of them are quite smooth; many are provided with horny projections, spines, and eminences. The coloration of caterpillars is as remarkable in the variety which it displays as is the ornamentation by means of the prominences of which we have just spoken. As caterpillars, for the most part, feed upon growing vegetation, multitudes of them are green in color, being thus adapted to their surroundings and securing a measure of protection. Many are brown, and exactly mimic the color of the twigs and branches upon which they rest when not engaged in feeding. Not a few are very gaily colored, but in almost every case this gay coloring is found to bear some relation to the color of the objects upon which they rest.

In addition to being protected from enemies by having colors which enable them to elude observation, as has been already stated, some caterpillars are provided with other means of defense. The caterpillars of the swallowtail butterflies are provided with a bifurcate or forked organ, generally yellow in color, which is protruded from an opening in the skin back of the head, and which emits a powerful odor . This protrusive organ evidently exists only for purposes of defense, and the secretion of the odor is analogous to the secretion of evil odors by some of the vertebrate animals, as the skunk. The majority of caterpillars, when attacked by insect or other enemies, defend themselves by quickly hurling the anterior part of the body from side to side.

THE PUPA, OR CHRYSALIS

The caterpillars of many butterflies attach themselves by a button of silk to the under surface of a branch or stone, or other projecting surface, and are transformed into chrysalids, which are naked, and which hang perpendicularly from the surface to which they are attached. Other caterpillars attach themselves to surfaces by means of a button of silk which holds the anal extremity of the chrysalis, and have, in addition, a girdle of silk which passes around the middle of the chrysalis, holding it in place very much as a papoose is held on the back of an Indian squaw by a strap passed over her shoulders.

A study of the structure of all chrysalids shows that within them there is contained the immature butterfly. The segments of the body are ensheathed in the corresponding segments of the chrysalis, and soldered over these segments are ensheathing plates of chitinous matter under which are the wings of the butterfly, as well as all the other organs necessary to its existence in the airy realm upon which it enters after emergence from the chrysalis. The practised eye of the observer is soon able to distinguish the location of the various parts of the butterfly in the chrysalis, and when the time for escape draws near, it is in many cases possible to discern through the thin, yet tough and hard, outer walls of the chrysalis the spots and colors on the wings of the insect.

ANATOMY OF BUTTERFLIES

The body of the butterfly consists of three parts--the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.

It will be observed from what has been said that the head in these creatures is to a large extent the seat of the organs of sense and alimentation. What the function of the antennae may be is somewhat doubtful, the opinion of scientific men being divided. The latest researches would indicate that these organs, which have been regarded as the organs of smell and sometimes as the organs of hearing, have probably a compound function, possibly enabling the creature to hear, certainly to smell, but also, perhaps, being the seat of impressions which are not strictly like any which we receive through our senses.

If a wing is examined with the naked eye, or even with a lens, a clear conception of the structure of the veins can rarely be formed. Therefore it is generally necessary to remove from the wings the scales which cover them, or else bleach them. The scales may be removed mechanically by rubbing them off. They may be made transparent by the use of chemical agents. In the case of specimens which are so valuable as to forbid a resort to these methods, a clear knowledge of the structure of the veins may be formed by simply moistening them with pure benzine or chloroform, which enables the structure of the veins to be seen for a few moments. The evaporation of these fluids is rapid, and they produce no ill effect upon the color and texture of the wings. In the case of common species, or in the case of such as are abundantly represented in the possession of the collector, and the practical destruction of one or two of which is a matter of no moment, it is easy to use the first method. The wing should be placed between two sheets of fine writing-paper which have been moistened by the breath at the points where the wing is laid, and then by lightly rubbing the finger-nail or a piece of ivory, bone, or other hard substance over the upper piece of paper, a good many of the scales may be removed. This process may be repeated until almost all of them have been taken off. This method is efficient in the case of many of the small species when they are still fresh; in the case of the larger species the scales may be removed by means of a camel's-hair pencil such as is used by painters. The chemical method of bleaching wings is simple and inexpensive. For this purpose the wing should be dipped in alcohol and then placed in a vessel containing a bleaching solution of some sort. The best agent is a solution of chloride of lime. After the color has been removed from the wing by the action of the chloride it should be washed in a weak solution of hydrochloric acid. It may then be cleansed in pure water and mounted upon a piece of glass, as microscopic slides are mounted, and thus preserved. When thus bleached the wing is capable of being minutely studied, and all points of its anatomy are brought clearly into view.

The veins in both the fore and hind wings of butterflies may be divided into simple and compound veins. In the fore wing the simple veins are the costal, the radial, and the submedian; in the hind wing, the costal, the subcostal, the upper and lower radial, the submedian, and the internal are simple. The costal vein in the hind wing is, however, generally provided near the base with a short ascending branch which is known as the precostal vein. In addition to these simple veins there are in the fore wing two branching veins, one immediately following the costal, known as the subcostal, and the other preceding the submedian, known as the median vein. The branches of these compound veins are known as nervules. The median vein always has three nervules. The nervules of the subcostal veins branch upwardly and outwardly toward the costal margin and the apex of the fore wing. There are always from four to five subcostal nervules. In the hind wing the subcostal is simple. The median vein in the hind wing has three nervules as in the fore wing. Between the subcostal and the median veins, toward the base in both wings, is inclosed the cell, which may be wholly or partially open at its outer extremity, or closed. The veinlets which close the cell at its outward extremity are known as the discocellular veins, of which there are normally three. From the point of union of these discocellular veins go forth the radial veins known respectively as the upper and lower radials, though the upper radial in many genera is emitted from the lower margin of the subcostal.

An understanding of these terms is, however, more readily derived from a study of the figure in which the names of these parts are indicated .

The muscular system finds its principal development in the thorax, which bears the organs of locomotion. The digestive system consists of the proboscis, which has already been described, the gullet, or oesophagus, and the stomach, over which is a large, bladder-like vessel called the food-reservoir, a sort of crop preceding the true stomach, which is a cylindrical tube; the intestine is a slender tube, varying in shape in different genera, divided into the small intestine, the colon, and the rectum. Butterflies breathe through spiracles, little oval openings on the sides of the segments of the body, branching from which inwardly are the tracheae, or bronchial tubes. The heart, which is located in the same relative position as the spine in vertebrate animals, is a tubular structure. The nervous system lies on the lower or ventral side of the body, its position being exactly the reverse of that which is found in the higher animals. It consists of nervous cords and ganglia, or nerve-knots, in the different segments. Those in the head are more largely developed than elsewhere, forming a rudimentary brain, the larger portion of which consists of two enormous optic nerves. The student who is desirous of informing himself more thoroughly and accurately as to the internal anatomy of these insects may consult with profit some of the treatises which are mentioned in the list of works dealing with the subject which is given elsewhere in this book.

THE CAPTURE, PREPARATION, AND PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS

"What hand would crush the silken-wing?d fly, The youngest of inconstant April's minions, Because it cannot climb the purest sky, Where the swan sings, amid the sun's dominions? Not thine."

SHELLEY.

"Do not mash your specimens!"--THE PROFESSOR.

COLLECTING APPARATUS

In order to protect and preserve the net, it is well to bind it with some thin muslin at the point where it is joined to the ring. Nets are sometimes made with a strip of muslin, about two inches wide, attached to the entire circumference of the ring, and to this strip of muslin the bag is sewed. For my part, I prefer gray or green as the color for a net. White should be avoided, as experience shows that a white net will often alarm an insect when a net of darker material will not cause it to fly before the collector is ready to bring the net down over the spot where it is settled.

In the preparation of the poisoning-jar it is well to use a jar which has a ground-glass stopper, and the mouth of which is about three inches in diameter. This will be large enough for most specimens. The one-pound hydrate of chloral jars, provided with glass stoppers and sold by Schering, make the neatest collecting-jars that are known to the writer. I have found it well to have such jars partly covered with leather after the fashion of a drinking-flask. An opening in the leather is left on either side, permitting an inspection of the contents of the jar. The leather protects from breakage. At the bottom of such a jar a few lumps of cyanide of potash, about the size of a filbert, should be placed. Over this may be laid a little cotton, to prevent the lumps from rattling about loosely at the bottom of the jar. Over the cotton there is pasted a sheet of strong white paper, perforated with a multitude of holes. In securing the white paper over the cyanide, the writer has resorted to a simple method which is explained in the annexed diagram. A piece of paper is placed under the jar, and a circle the size of the inside of the jar is traced upon it. Then a disk is cut out about three quarters of an inch greater in diameter than the original circle . The paper is punctured over the entire surface included within the inner line, and then, with a scissors, little gashes are made from the outer circumference inward, so as to permit of the folding up of the edge of the disk. A little gum tragacanth is then applied to these upturned edges; and it is inserted into the jar and pasted securely over the cyanide by the upturned flaps. A jar thus charged will last for a long time, if kept properly closed when not in use. Cyanide of potash has a tendency to deliquesce, or melt down in the presence of moisture, and in very humid climates or damp places, if the jar is not kept well stoppered, the cyanide will quickly become semi-fluid, the paper will become moist, and specimens placed in the jar will be injured or completely ruined. It is well, however, to bear in mind the fact that the fumes of hydrocyanic acid , which are active in producing the death of the insect, will not be given off in sufficient volume unless there is some small amount of moisture present in the jar; and in a very dry climate the writer has found it sometimes necessary to add a drop or two of water from time to time to the cyanide. The same method which has been described for charging a jar with cyanide of potash can be employed in charging it with carbonate of ammonia.

Many other baits besides this may be employed to attract insects. Some writers recommend a bait prepared by boiling dried apples and mashing them into a pulp, adding a little rum to the mixture, and applying this to the bark of trees. In tropical countries bananas, especially rotten bananas, seem to have a charm for insects. The cane-trash at sugar-mills is very attractive. If possible, it is well to obtain a quantity of this trash and scatter it along forest paths. Some insects have very peculiar appetites and are attracted by things loathsome. The ordure of carnivorous animals seems to have a special charm for some of the most magnificently colored and the rarest of tropical butterflies. A friend of mine in Africa, who collected for me for a number of years, used to keep civet-cats, the ordure of which was collected and placed at appropriate points in the forest paths; and he was richly rewarded by obtaining many insects which were not obtained in any other way. Putrid fish have a charm for other species, and dead snakes, when rankly high, will attract still others. It may be observed that after the trees have been treated for a succession of days or nights with the sweetening mixture spoken of above, they become very productive. When collecting in Japan I made it a rule to return in the morning to the spots that I had sugared for moths the evening before, and I was always amply repaid by finding multitudes of butterflies and even a good many day-flying moths seated upon the mossy bark, feasting upon the remnants of the banquet I had provided the evening before. There is no sport--I do not except that of the angler--which is more fascinating than the sport derived by an enthusiastic entomologist from the practice of "sugaring." It is well, however, to know always where your path leads, and not to lay it out in the dusk, as the writer once did when staying at a well-known summer resort in Virginia. The path which he had chosen as the scene of operations was unfortunately laid, all unknown to himself, just in the rear of the poultry-house of a man who sold chickens to the hotel; and when he saw the dark lantern mysteriously moving about, he concluded that some one with designs upon his hens was hidden in the woods, and opened fire with a seven-shooter, thus coming very near to terminating abruptly the career of an ardent entomologist.

THE BREEDING OF SPECIMENS

In collecting caterpillars it is well to have on hand a number of small boxes in which to place them, and also a botany-box in which to bring from the field a supply of their appropriate food.

The process of breeding may begin with the caterpillar. The collector, having discovered the caterpillar feeding upon the branch of a certain plant, provides the creature with a constant supply of the fresh foliage of the same plant, until it finally pupates.

THE PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS

In pinning down the strips which are to hold the wings in place, be careful to pin around the wing, but never, if possible, through it. When the wings have been adjusted in the position in which they are to remain, the antennae, or feelers, should be attended to and drawn forward on the same plane as the wings and secured in place. This may ordinarily be done by setting pins in such a position as to hold them where they are to stay. Then the body, if it has a tendency to sag down at the end of the abdomen, should be raised. This may also be accomplished by means of pins thrust beneath on either side. The figure on the next page shows more clearly what is intended. When the insect has been set, the board should be put aside in a place where it will not be molested or attacked by pests, and the specimens upon it allowed to dry. A box with shelves in it is often used for this purpose. This box should have a door at the front covered with wire gauze, and the back should also be open, covered with gauze, so as to allow a free circulation of air. A few balls of naphthaline placed in it will tend to keep away mites and other pests. The time during which the specimen should remain on the board until it is dried varies with its size and the condition of the atmosphere. Most butterflies and moths in dry weather will be sufficiently dried to permit of their removal from the setting-boards in a week; but large, stout-bodied moths may require as much as two weeks, or even more time, before they are dry enough to be taken off the boards. The process of drying may be hastened by placing the boards in an oven, but the temperature of the oven must be quite low. If too much heat is applied, great injury is sure to result. Only a careful and expert operator should resort to the use of the oven, a temperature above 120?F. being sure to work mischief.

The process of setting insects upon setting-blocks is exactly the same as when setting-boards are used, with the simple difference that, instead of pinning strips of paper or tracing-muslin over the wings, the wings are held in place by threads or very narrow tapes, which are wound around the block. When the wings are not covered with a very deep and velvety covering of scales the threads or tapes maybe used alone; but when the wings are thus clothed it becomes necessary to put bits of paper or cardboard over the wings before wrapping with the threads. Unless this is done the marks of the threads will be left upon the wings. Some little skill, which is easily acquired by practice, is necessary in order to employ setting-blocks to advantage, but in the case of small species and species which have refractory wings they are much to be preferred to the boards.

In inflating larvae the first step is carefully to remove the contents of the larval skin. This may be done by making an incision with a stout pin or a needle at the anal extremity, and then, between the folds of a soft towel or cloth, pressing out the contents of the abdominal cavity. The pressure should be first applied near the point where the pellicle has been punctured, and should then be carried forward until the region of the head is reached. Care must be exercised to apply only enough pressure to expel the contents of the skin without disturbing the tissues which lie nearest to the epidermis, in which the pigments are located, and not to remove the hairs which are attached to the body. Pressure sufficient to bruise the skin should never be applied. A little practice soon imparts the required dexterity. The contents of the larval skin having been removed, the next step is to inflate and dry the empty skin. A compact statement of the method of performing this operation is contained in Hornaday's "Taxidermy and Zo?logical Collecting," from the pen of the writer, and I herewith reproduce it:

"The simplest method of inflating the skins of larvae after the contents have been withdrawn is to insert a straw or grass stem of appropriate thickness into the opening through which the contents have been removed, and then by the breath to inflate the specimen, while holding over the chimney of an Argand lamp, the flame of which must be regulated so as not to scorch or singe it. Care must be taken in the act of inflating not to unduly distend the larval skin, thus producing a distortion, and also to dry it thoroughly. Unless the latter precaution is observed a subsequent shrinking and disfigurement will take place. The process of inflating in the manner just described is somewhat laborious, and while some of the finest specimens which the writer has ever seen were prepared in this primitive manner, various expedients for lessening the labor involved have been devised, some of which are to be highly commended."

Share on: WhatsApp @Hash Facebook Tweet