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The centre for each particular group will not always derive that mark of superiority from its size, or intelligence, or beauty, or complicated structure, but from a combination of these qualities, and more particularly from uniting in itself the principal and more decidedly distinguishing characters of the group of which it forms the nucleus, and the gradation will by no means be found to be regular, from the most perfect in the centre to the least perfect on the circumference of minor groups, although I imagine this relative position to obtain in the extremes: on the contrary, the approaches towards perfection or imperfection will be infinitely varied, presenting the most complete labyrinth of intricacies that imagination can conceive, yet all disposed with that beautiful and wonderful regularity which proclaims more loudly than words, that "the natural system is the plan of creation itself, the work of an ALL-WISE ALL-POWERFUL DEITY."

Horae Entomologicae, preface, p. xiii.

ON THE CLASSES OF INSECTA.

Many theories, which read plausibly enough, we find, on attempting to apply them, totally at variance with facts: I will, therefore, not content myself with making unsupported assertions, but endeavour to summon to my aid fragments of the great whole, and array them before the reader, in what I consider order, asking of him, as an especial favour, that he will examine and compare the genera and species which I shall mention as related to each other in corroboration of my scheme; for much as I could wish by argument to convince him that a system of circles, grouped in sevens, exists universally throughout nature, yet I should much prefer that, by actual experiment, he should convince himself. With this view I will take a rapid survey of the central class of Insecta, observing in what particulars it is related to those which surround it. I have selected insecta first because I already possessed a slight knowledge of its contents; secondly, because there exists little difference of opinion as to those contents; and, thirdly, because Mr. MacLeay has given it as his opinion "that it is among insects above all other groups of animals, that owing to their myriads of species, the mode in which nature's chain is linked--a mode, the knowledge of which comprises all knowledge in natural history, will be most evident, and therefore most easily detected."

I have invariably used the term class, to designate the orders of Linnaeus, and sub-class, for the next division, of which seven are supposed to exist in every class: these sub-classes may sometimes constitute natural orders, in which case a plural termination is given; thus, Blatta constitutes in itself a sub-class Blatta, a natural order Blattae, and a genus Blatta; but generally a sub-class will contain seven natural orders; as sub-class Scarabaeus contains natural orders--Lucani, Coprides, Scarabaei, Histeres, &c.

The only question as to the contents of insecta, is, whether the pediculi are true insects or not; the class Hemiptera is so closely related to them, that I cannot think it a great violation to place them in the outermost circle of that class; the acari may be supposed meeting them in an adjoining circle, but I have no desire to provoke controversy on this minor point.

Annulosa Javanica, preface, p. xi.

It is somewhat remarkable that, although considerably upwards of two thousand years have elapsed since the first system of insects was promulged, at least the first of which we have any knowledge, yet no attempt has hitherto been successfully made to improve it; from this perfection I think we may fairly conclude, that the philosopher of Stagira was not merely a man of extraordinary talent, but that he had made himself the repository of what had previously been saved of the learning of his forefathers, in a day when it will be recollected the printing press had no existence; and we have nothing to prove that entomology had not degenerated through the two thousand years previous to Aristotle, as it unquestionably did during the two thousand years subsequent to the time of that philosopher, when our own immortal countryman, Ray, revived the science, and laid the foundation of a regenerated lustre, which, perhaps, may eventually rival that diffused by the great Stagirite himself. Be this as it may, the systematist has no choice but to go back two thousand years for the primary outline, or classification of insects; and, I may add, nothing but a desire to make myself clearly understood, prevents my adopting the nomenclature, as well as the division of Aristotle. I shall, however, employ the more modern and less appropriate names for the present, hoping that at a future day an opportunity may occur of doing justice to the merits of that writer, whom we are all compelled to follow, or to forsake the path of truth.

Column headings legend:

G: General character. R: Resemblance to Imago.

The very imperfection of this table will constitute its principal utility, because, instead of acknowledging variety as a suitable definition of any particular part or state, the differences of which in respective classes, entomologists have been accustomed to consider characteristic, we find authors labouring to confine a group by what they would wish to consider good and solid characters, which characters they often at last leave so comprehensive, as not only to include the class which they had originally intended to define, but also a majority of those other classes which they had supposed previously disposed of. If, in reply, my reader should tell me that my seventh class was somewhat of this too comprehensive kind, I should simply reply that I intended it to be so; and if my reader happen to know a better, he can interline it in his copy. A space would then be occupied, which has hitherto in all such definitions been really, although not verbally, vacant.

Mr. MacLeay has written a little pamphlet on the impropriety of the dichotomous system, which I recollect reading, when published, with considerable pleasure. I forget its title.

Horae Entomologicae, p. 367.

Horae Entomologicae, p. 518.

See the Table.

In Clo?on.

A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.

ON THE SUB-CLASSES, &c. OF LEPIDOPTERA.

Particularly in the sections of Papilio.

Linnaeus.

These were apparent difficulties only; for, as no system existed to direct, so none existed to encumber or perplex. Too much is known now of Linnaean combinations, to assert, that he always thought correctly; and since his day no one has thought at all. Now, if you cannot obtain a nicely drawn plan, you prefer having a blank sheet of paper to one covered all over with scorings and markings, and then you may set to work and make your plan yourself. So, in natural history, contrariety of opinion perplexes, while the absence of opinion leaves the systematist perfectly unbiassed in the formation of his own. Again, copious and well-named collections of this favourite class are by no means uncommon; and through, the liberality of my friends, I had often been permitted to inspect them, and had gained a sufficient superficial knowledge of their contents, to be enabled, with the assistance of my own specimens, to cluster them pretty well into seven great families or sub-classes; and although, as I have noticed, nothing available existed on the subject of arrangement of Lepidoptera, either in essay, or treatise, or catalogue, or cabinet, yet there was to be found, up and down, much valuable matter, in the shape of what might be termed natural history of Lepidoptera. Finally, I knew, that could I master this class, I could stand my ground, because I had previously tried the experiment on the classes Hymenoptera and Coleoptera, and had found that, at the word seven, they fell into instant order, as at the touch of a magician's wand; and, as for the other classes, we are in such innocent and blissful ignorance of their contents, that were a scheme ever so futile, a century at least must elapse before its futility could be proved by Orthoptera, Hemiptera, or Diptera.

Whoever will give himself the trouble to examine thoroughly a collection of British Lepidoptera, will find a very great majority of them evincing very evident symptoms of relation to one or other of the following species:--Papilio Machaon, Sphinx Ligustri, Pyralis verticalis, Tinea pellionella, Noctua pronuba, and Geometra roboraria; and should any form widely different from either of these occur, it may, if the larva be known, be placed in the centre of a ring formed by the groups, which we will suppose surrounding their six respective types; or, if its larva be unknown, it must await the discovery of that most unerring stage of its existence. I am persuaded, did entomologists know how much depends on the form, habit, food, and clothing of larvae, they would not be so neglected as they are at present. I have much to regret my own remissness in this respect, for it has seldom happened that I have found the larva of any insect which had not been previously well known, but it has tended to point out some approaches that had never before been thought of,--approaches, even when thus pointed out, totally irreconcilable with existing ideas of arrangement and combination of groups, but which now open to my view the most beautiful chains of affinities; and wonderfully but indubitably prove, that a single individual may be related to three, four, or even more apparently disconnected groups.

Latreille seems to think this to have been a deception, and that the antennae which Godart found on the insect did not belong to it. I cannot suppose that the latter author could have been so grossly deceived.

The next type is Sphinx Ligustri; and here again our British collections are obliged to plead poverty; few, however, as they are at present, I am compelled, if I purpose consulting nature, to reduce them about half: the AEgeriae and Zygaenae must be moved elsewhere; they look like Sphinges, but are none. I will begin then with Castnia, of which no more need be said. The next striking departure from the type occurs in having the abdomen furnished with tufts or brushes, which the insect spreads as it hovers over flowers, somewhat in the manner of a bird's tail. The long porrected antlia also has a resemblance, perhaps rather fancied than real, to the slender bill of a humming-bird, whence the tribe has received with us the name of English humming-birds. The genus Sesia I will place on the circumference of the circle, not doubting but nearer approaches to the Cossi may be discovered, or are even now known, but no better exists among our own Sphinges. The next point of contact will be with Pyralis; and here the genus OEgocera, figured in the R?gne Animal, seems to claim its station: it is a decided Sphinx, with the palpi of Hypena proboscidalis, and Latreille has placed it between Sesia and Zygaena, from which it will be seen that I differ only in making Zygaena pass over the boundary line and into the next section.

The fourth sub-class, Tinea, far exceeds in numbers either of the others, and probably all of them together; and where such a multitude of species exists, great diversity in form and habit may be expected: the Pterophori are a most singular tribe, and greatly resemble the Tipulae in many respects. I feel by no means certain that their situation would not be better between the lepidopterous sub-class, Tinea, and the dipterous sub-class, Tipulae, thus throwing them completely out of the lepidopterous circle; but this I leave. I am now only sketching a rough and hasty outline from nature. If I attempt to finish my drawing as I proceed, I shall find occupation sufficient for a lifetime. I have observed that I considered the chain of relation entering from the last sub-class at Chilo, or about that genus; the same order must of course include Crambus, and its congeners; the next order will contain Yponomeuta, which I will place at the point of contact; and the next point being among the true Tortrices will drive Halias fagana as a decided departure from their typical form to the very circumference of the circle where it touches Noctua.

The fifth sub-class, Noctua, seems to be but one mighty genus: we will enter it from Halias fagana, an insect so nearly allied to Noctua in its larva, its pupa, and its imago, that for a long time I hesitated to which sub-class it belonged; again, in Cymatophora, subtusa and retusa, I was fearful that by considering them Noctuae, I might deprive the order Tortrices of a genus on which perhaps many curious combinations might depend, and I now only place them in Noctuae until I may have an opportunity of examining their larvae, which I have not yet been fortunate enough to meet with. Towards the central sub-class there appear to be many genera which approach the line of contact; Agrotis and Chareas for instance: I prefer taking the latter, and must mention the species Graminis, as I am fearful of encumbering my system with species to which I not only never intended to refer, but should probably place in some distant order, or perhaps sub-class. At the approach to Geometra, the genus Catocala, from its looping larva, seems to have a right to be placed: this I, however, look on with suspicion, as the larva appears to me any thing but a guide in the connexion of sub-classes; but I here succumb to customary usage in making this genus the approach to the real loopers, objecting, however, to the intervention of Phytometra, Euclidia, and Brepha.

Ochsenheimer places Oo in this genus, and I observe Mr. Stephens confines the genus to that one species. Mr. Curtis places Oo in the genus Bombycia: this confusion of genera is very puzzling, but I hope, by mentioning species, to make myself understood. Oo is not at all applicable to my purpose.

Perhaps Noctua Lambda.

The sixth and last of the exterior sub-classes is Geometra, and we shall find one insect which is completely a Geometra, and yet in the larva has two additional feet, and the abdominal fringe of Catocala: this is Metrocampus margaritaria, an insect, without which the connexion of these sub-classes would have been difficult to establish. The next species I am acquainted with seems to be Rumia crataegaria, and after it the Thorn moths, as they are termed : these lead to Geometra in the centre, which may be considered the farthest removed from any of the surrounding sub-classes; from the genus Geometra a line may be drawn through Biston, Nyssia, and Hybernia, to the point of contact with Phalaena in the centre, and another through Boarmia, Abraxas, and Ourapteryx to Urania, from which genus of Papiliones perhaps the reader will recollect we set out.

Alcis. Curtis.

The seventh and central sub-class, Phalaena, now claims our attention. The mere circumstance of having taken a little tour round it gives but a very poor idea of its contents, and although my reader may assure me he knows them sufficiently well already, that assurance will by no means satisfy me that he and I are at all agreed either as to what those contents may be, or as to their relative situations. Before, however, I again set in earnest to the task of pointing out relations and approaches, I feel that some apology is due for attempting the restoration of a beautiful and euphonious name to that grand group of Lepidoptera, to which it was originally assigned by the eminent naturalist who was the first to define and name such groups. I am fully aware this is an attempt at innovation for which I can never be forgiven by the scientific; for the merit of the present day seems to consist in the total neglect of grouping and classifying, and in making a host of imaginary genera and species, for the mere pleasure of overwhelming us with a "farrago" of barbarous and unutterable names,--a practice which my unsophisticated and old-fashioned notions will never dwell on with that deferential awe which such profound science has an undoubted right to expect.

Linnaeus.

Furthermore, the naming of orders which I have been obliged to mention by name, in the unscientific way which I have adopted, merely making them plurals of established names, of large and overgrown genera, I acknowledge to be a confession of ignorance not usual in this our day, especially as these old genera have almost in every instance the disadvantage of being euphonious, easily pronounced, expressive, and universally understood; and an opportunity once missed of coining names for three hundred new orders, alas! alas! may never occur again.

To return; I suppose the sub-class Phalaena to contain seven natural orders, a number precisely similar to that discovered from observations made on the larva by that most accurate and indefatigable naturalist, Dr. Horsfield; and I may add, my own divisions are derived from the same source, together with the pupa and whole habit: the perfect insect has no characters, hitherto discovered, by which we can ascertain either sub-class or order, and from this circumstance I am compelled to omit those genera of whose larvae I am ignorant, and even to leave those as doubtful, of which I possess but a partial knowledge of that state.

I regret not having Dr. Horsfield's work to refer to; but I believe I am perfectly safe in stating from memory that these seven he considered typed in the genera, Saturnia, Lasiocampa, Cossus, Cerura, Arctia, Laria, and Limacodes: two of these he manages to unite to other two, in order to reduce the number to five, but I forget which.

It is a most singular chance that these genera should have been placed so naturally, as the cause of this proximity has never before been even hinted at.

British Entomology, pl. 328.

As the larva so decidedly forbids the introduction of this insect among the Notodontae, and places it among the Noctuae, it probably in some degree approaches Geometra pennaria in the adjoining sub-class.

See note for the genera of Lithosia.

Ent. Useful Com. p. 249.

Saturnia carpini is the Pavonia minor of Linnaeus, who, apparently, considered it a variety of a completely different species: the retention of a name thus originating in error is not justifiable.

I have previously given, in a note, a list of the genera which are usually considered as Bombyces, and ought, therefore, if properly placed, to be included in the sub-class Phalaena; five of those genera yet remain, and at present must be excluded from the sub-class: Penthophera, Heterogena, and Limacodes, because I know nothing of their history; Nudaria and Psyche, because, in the larva, pupa, and imago states, they have the habit and appearance of another class . The time of their dwelling with Lepidoptera is over and gone; they have already occupied too long a position to which they were not entitled. The difficulty of assigning a situation to Limacodes I hope to see removed, as the larva is occasionally to be met with. I must also remark, that although I have proposed a situation for Endromis, I feel very doubtful as to its being the correct one. These doubts and difficulties will probably gain me much censure; but I must endeavour to shelter myself in some degree, by observing, that I am the first who has ever deviated from the original Linnaean arrangement of Lepidoptera, the first who has ever thought of appealing to nature in support of theory, or rather has waited for nature to supply him with theory; and surely some allowance is to be made for a first attempt of any kind. I would also plead the poverty of our British Fauna in the sub-class, and my almost entire ignorance of exotic Phalaenae. Even supposing myself acquainted with all our indigenous species, they will barely furnish a systematist with a clew to the truth: you may pick up a single link of a chain, yet fail to discover the length of that chain, or the situation in that chain which the link originally possessed.

Having, then, pointed out, as clearly as my limited knowledge of the subject will permit, not only the principal contents of the class Lepidoptera, but endeavoured to establish them in appointed and fixed stations, and to show their mutual approaches, at least those of the most striking kind and essential to my purpose, I must now proceed to make a few remarks on the nature of these approaches. It will be observed, that they are, almost without an exception, what Mr. MacLeay considers relations of affinity, that is, the relation is between species which, in their imago state, have a real and positive similarity to each other; so much so, that entomologists, unacquainted with the prior states, and frequently even in direct defiance of their own knowledge of those states, place them in orders, and even sub-classes to which they do not belong; to which fact all our systems and catalogues bear most ample testimony. This similarity is by no means confined to a cursory glance at the insects, but bears the test of a minute anatomical investigation, the antlia, palpi and antennae demonstrating the approach quite as forcibly as the form and appearance of the whole insect. Where a tribe has short biarticulate palpi, a genus departing from the type will assume elongated and triarticulate palpi, should another tribe with those characters approach it: again, should a tribe with long antlia approach a tribe whose character it is to have none, we shall be sure to find a genus without antlia at the point of approach. On the other hand, the very egg, the larva, the pupa, the mode of feeding and description of food, the mode of metamorphosis, and, in fact, every prior quality, or state, from which distinctions could be obtained, differ so decidedly, that the characters of these often bear as near an approach to those of Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and even Coleoptera, as to those of their own kindred, into immediate contact with which these approaches will be found inevitably to bring them. What term can then be applied to designate the real value of this species of approach? Supposing the terms analogy and affinity to have had good, sound, and distinct meanings, as originally employed and explained by great naturalists, they have now been so confused, confounded, and utterly misunderstood by ignorant persons, that either of these terms is entirely out of the question: in fact, a suitable term by which to designate this peculiar species of relation or approach, I neither know where to find, or how to invent; and, therefore, I shall purpose simply to call it relation of larva, relation of pupa, or relation of imago, as the case may be.

This question has occurred.

It is so long since I have seen Dr. Horsfield's beautiful work, that I will not pledge myself to the doctor's making this assertion.

To a sub-class selected for a centre, two qualities are indispensably requisite. They have been previously given from Mr. MacLeay, who, it will be remembered, discovered that one of each of his five groups contained types of the other four, besides a type peculiar to itself. This quality must hold good in any group thus selected for a centre; it must contain types of the six surrounding groups in the first place. Now, is this applicable to Papilio? Have we not already experienced the greatest difficulty in finding three good approaches, the smallest number which a sub-class can possess? How then can we hope, by any good fortune in discovery, to make ourselves masters of three other entirely new ones, and these to sub-classes to which it is confessedly the most unlike? Phalaena, on the contrary, presents us with Lasiocampa, AEgeria, Cilix, Lithosia, Apatela and Orgyia, five of which genera beautifully typify the approximating sub-classes. The preference on this score then is decidedly with Phalaena.

The second position, that it should contain a type peculiar to itself, is almost a matter of course; but my own idea is, that the very centre should not only be a type of the genus, or order, or sub-class, but of the class itself of which it is the centre. From this position, then, a further and still more important question arises,--What is the type of Lepidoptera? The parts which afford the generic characters of Lepidoptera, and, I believe, generic characters in the perfect state are the only ones of any value, are these--the mouth, palpi, antennae and wings; and, as no medium can constitute a type, the excess of these characters, whether superlatively or diminutively considered, must be resorted to as the most probable means we possess of discovering what this type may really be. First, then, the mouth. In Lepidoptera, we find two distinct characters in this;--first, its entire absence; secondly, its being furnished with prodigiously long antlia. The first character is that of Phalaena, the second that of Sphinx. Next, the palpi are either entirely obsolete or exceedingly prominent, the first in Phalaena, the second in Pyralis. Thirdly, the antennae are remarkably pectinated, or clavated, or setaceous: the first character is that of Phalaena, the second that of Papilio, the third that of Noctua. Fourthly, the wings are enormously expansive in proportion to the body, or remarkably small,--the first is the character of Phalaena, the second that of Sphinx. It need scarcely be added, that all these characters are to be met with in every intermediate degree of intensity. Now, it appears, that Phalaena possesses an extreme of each of the four principal characters, Sphinx of two, Noctua of one, and Papilio of one; therefore Phalaena is the typical genus, Phalaenae the typical order, and Phalaena the typical sub-class of Lepidoptera: and a necessary conclusion from this fact is, the type of Lepidoptera is an insect without antlia or palpi, with very pectinated antennae and enormously expansive wings, and we may add nocturnal flight: so that such peculiar characters as the thick full body and prodigiously long antlia of Sphinx, the clavate antennae, erect wings, and diurnal flight of Papilio, argue a departure from, and not an approach to, the type.

It is rather remarkable, that in this order no instance should occur of more than three genera belonging to any one family, a number which I should hardly suppose complete, because a difficulty must always occur in placing, as in discovering the typical genus or species, where the number is confined to three.

The introduction of a new generic name, after what has been said on that subject, may appear rather an inconsistency, but I found it indispensable, as the species in question would not bend to either of the established genera, Trochilium or AEgeria; it will, moreover, afford those whose labours in this way I have somewhat deprecated, a fair opportunity for retaliation. The families and their relative situations, as far as my immature and hastily-formed judgment will allow me to decide, I have shown in the annexed diagram: but it is now time for me to describe the species whose situation I am endeavouring to point out.

Sub-kingdom, INSECTA.

Characters from the imago.

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