Read Ebook: Kantele Taikka Suomen Kansan sekä Wanhoja että Nykyisempiä Runoja ja Lauluja IV by L Nnrot Elias

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PART I

PAGES

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 1-2

DARWIN 2-12

WALLACE 12-23

HAECKEL 23-28

SPENCER 28-76

FISKE 77-82

ROLPH 82-107

BARRATT 107-120

STEPHEN 120-143

CARNERI 143-175

H?FFDING 175-200

GIZYCKI 200-224

ALEXANDER 225-263

PART II

INTRODUCTION

THE CONCEPTS OF EVOLUTION

Extension of the meaning of Darwinian concepts since Darwin--Lewes on the Struggle for Existence as internal--The mystery of "Variation" according to Darwin not a metaphysical mystery, but one of the incompleteness of scientific knowledge--Rolph's criticism of the Darwinian conception of the Struggle for Existence criticised--General classification of the theories of Evolution--Fechner's theory of the Tendency to Stability--Petzoldt on Fechner--Petzoldt's concepts of Tendency and Competition--Z?llner and Du Prel--Examination of the concept of Absolute Stability, and of a full stability of the universe, in the light of the question as to the finite or infinite character of the material universe--Periodicity in Organisms--Criticism of the concepts of Cause and Effect--Criticism of Spencer's definition of Life--The concepts of Heredity and Adaptation--The point of dispute with regard to Variation--Darwin, Haeckel, and Eimer with regard to the inheritance of individual acquirements--Criticisms of Weismann--Habit in the life of the individual--Advantage of the method pursued by Avenarius in the "Kritik der reinen Erfahrung"--Lamarck on the relation of Use and Function--Darwin on Habit and Instinct--Function and Tendency to Function--Relation of organism and environment--Theory of a special vital force--The relation of exercise to strength of Tendency--The concepts of Cause and Effect as applied to organism and environment--Relation of primary tendency to later-evolved function--Form and Function--The mixture of types in sexual propagation--Summary of conclusions 277-306

INTELLIGENCE AND "END"

THE WILL

Difficulties of definition--The Will and Consciousness--"Involuntary" action--Will in passivity--The concept of Choice--"Ends" and the Will--The Future and Will--The External and Will--Criticism of Barratt's axioms and propositions--Discussion of the relation of Thought and Feeling to Will--The argument of the Physiologist--The argument of the Evolutionist--The argument from social statistics--The argument from Psychiatry, Criminology, etc.--The argument from the psychological principles on which Evolutional Ethics is founded--Definition of Natural Law and Necessity--The positive factors of Evolution--The positive and active character of the organism as the result of evolution--The equivalence of Conditions and Results--The positive character of the organism as a part of Nature--The sense of Freedom as the sense of Activity--The theory of the Will as determined by Motives--As determined by Feeling--As determined by the desirability of the end or object--The argument of Concomitance and that of Sequence as used by both Materialist and Spiritualist--The endeavor to prove the causal character of physiological process; the causal character of Consciousness--Inconsistencies of these attempts 341-359

THE MUTUAL RELATIONS OF THOUGHT, FEELING, AND WILL IN EVOLUTION

Hume on Reason and Passion--The constant connection of Thought with Feeling, and with Feeling as pleasure or pain--The question as to whether Thought or Feeling is primary--Application of answer to previous considerations on the diffusion of Consciousness in Nature--The relation of the concepts of the Pleasurable and Painful to the concept of "End"--Will as a constant accompaniment of Consciousness--Absurdities to which the division of Consciousness into distinct faculties leads--Law of the growth of functional tendency and of pleasure in function--The New as a disturber of equilibrium--The pleasure involved in the overcoming of obstacles--The equilibrium of function as Health--Connection of the pleasure of food-taking with Health--Criticism of Rolph's principle of the Insatiability of Life--Further criticism of Rolph on the Darwinian theory of Growth--The co?rdinate progress of physiological adaptation with the advancement of knowledge, and with the variation of Feeling and Will--The pleasure of the strongest motive as relative, not absolute--The character of the End in view--The pleasure of anticipation and the pleasure of the event--Criticism of Sidgwick on Hedonism--Criticism of Rolph's theory of Want as universal motive--Suicide--Rest--The diminution of pain with lapse of time as adaptation--Pleasure in pain as pleasure in function--The relation of Health to Happiness--The theory of the absolute Freedom of Feeling--The concepts of Cause and Effect as applied to the evolution of Thought, Feeling, and Will--Application of conclusions to the Teleological Argument 360-382

EGOISM AND ALTRUISM IN EVOLUTION

Prototypes in other animal species of what we term Egoism and Altruism in man; care for the young on the part of the parent-animal; mutual aid between the sexes; animal societies--Experiments of Lubbock showing the irregularity and caprice of action altruistic in form, among the ants--Benno Scheitz on maternal care among lower species--Answers to the argument of automatism--Dependence of a theory of moral Evolution on the definition of Egoism and Altruism--The significance of the terms progressive--The possibility of differences in the form of the evolution of Altruism, in different species--The possibility of the combination of different forms in the evolution of a single species--Discussion of the question of the first beginning of action prompted by altruistic motive--The argument of the illogical nature of a supposed development of Altruism from Egoism--The question as to whether Health, the Preservation of Species, or Pleasure, is the actual final end of action--The question of Heredity in relation to that of the moral evolution--Stephen's views--Arguments from Ribot, Dugdale's "Jukes," etc. 383-422

CONSCIENCE

THE MORAL PROGRESS OF THE HUMAN SPECIES AS SHOWN BY HISTORY

The assimilative character of human progress--The character of our savage ancestors--Greek civilization--The Greek treatment of children--Of old men--Human sacrifices among the Greeks--Slaughter of prisoners--Slavery--The Greek attitude towards the fundamental virtues of trustworthiness--Athenian Democracy--Roman civilization--Treatment of children--Human sacrifices--Gladiatorial shows--Slavery--Moral character of the Middle Ages--Human sacrifice in England before the Roman conquest--Slave laws--State punishment in England: burning, hanging, and boiling, quartering and disembowelling--Women under the criminal law--Blood-money--The classification of crimes--Caste-favor in English criminal law--Mutilation--Flaying--Ordeals--Punishment by starvation--The press--The rack--"Skevington's Daughter"--Benefit of Clergy--The position of the English churl--The worship of rank--Hanging for petty theft--The pillory--Brutality of public feeling--Condition of the prisons--Jail-breaking, bribery, etc.--More concerning women under the law--Favor to rank--The logical consistency of human character in its various directions of action--General comparison of the past with the present--The evidence of literature--Modern philanthropy--Decrease of national prejudices--Growth of the democratic spirit--Lack of imagination a reason for the failure to realize the evils of the past--The Golden Age of Man 466-499

THE RESULTS OF ETHICAL INQUIRY ON AN EVOLUTIONAL BASIS

Criticism of Alexander's theory of the right as always absolute right and as the expression, on all planes of development, of an equal equilibrium--The Moral Evolution as one involving the whole of humanity and the whole earth--Gradual relaxation of the Struggle for Existence--The final limitation of the increase in density of population--The increase of vitality--The habituation to progress--The gradual co?rdination of individual with social welfare through Spread and increase of sympathy with the individual on the part of society as a whole; Growth of individual predilections in the direction of harmony with social requirements--Decrease of punishment through Increase in general sympathy; Increase of amenability of the individual to influence--Increase of pleasure in pleasure--The possible egoistic element in sympathy with pain--Criticism of Rolph on Want as necessary to induce action--The moral evolution and emotion--Criticism of Spencer on Altruism--Criticism of Wundt on Evolutional Ethics--The theory that Evolution adds nothing to Ethics--Criticism of Stephen on the impossibility of predicting the course of Evolution--The Moral Evolution as willed--The motives furnished by Evolutional Ethics--The theological doctrine of a "change of heart"--The doctrine of the Atonement--Divine forgiveness--Theology and social evils--The prominence of the idea of self-salvation in Christian doctrine--Human sacrifice among the Jews--Biblical authority for the killing of witches and heretics--The infliction of death for ceremonial offences among the Jews--The visiting of the sins of the fathers upon the children--Slave-holding, adultery, murder, etc., by God's chosen, bloodshed and cruelty of all sorts by God's express command--Animal sacrifice among the Jews--The original idea of Jehovah and of Heaven--The autocracy of the Jewish priesthood confirmed by Christ--Forced exegesis--The asceticism of Christianity--Slavery and the New Testament--Predestination, Hell, and the Justification of the Elect--The defence of Christianity as being a comforting belief 500-528

THE IDEAL AND THE WAY OF ITS ATTAINMENT

Criticism of Stephen's assertion that the ideal cannot be determined--The necessity of the choice between evils, under present social conditions--The argument for individual gratification of "natural desire"--Dangers of Utilitarianism--Moral right of the minority and the ethical demand for compensation to the minority--The contest between Individualist and Socialist--Criticism of Spencer on personal vice--Individualistic errors--Socialistic pessimism--The idea of a "return to Nature"--The Socialistic glorification of the laborer--The agitation against machinery--The agitation against luxury--The abolition of luxury and the population question--The proposed change of social "environment"--Socialism at the present date--Arbitrary character of many Socialistic ideas--Criticisms of Bellamy--The idea of a Revolution--Conclusions--The education of the child--The right of the child to state protection--The advantages of parental control--The education of women--The question of prostitution--Monogamy or polygamy?--Temporary contracts--Divorce--The argument that the freedom of women must involve the forfeiture of chivalric feeling in men--The respect for age--Desirable changes in criminal law--Criticism of Bellamy on Crime--The question of Capital Punishment--Arguments for--Arguments against--Conclusions--The conflict between justice and mercy--The supreme arbiter--The courage of Moral Sincerity--Heroic characters--The final destruction of the human species--The loss of belief in personal immortality--The human and earthly ideal 529-581

A REVIEW OF EVOLUTIONAL ETHICS

PART I

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

In the preface to the latest edition of his "Nat?rliche Sch?pfungsgeschichte," Haeckel, writing of recent developments of thought on the subject of evolution, and the change of attitude observable in our later literature, says: "The vast mass of literature, yearly increasing in astonishing measure, on the theory of evolution in its various branches, best illustrates the remarkable change which public opinion has undergone. Twenty years ago, the greater part of this literature was in opposition to Darwin; to-day such opposition is not to be feared from well-informed students of science. On the other hand, almost the whole literature of biology now gives testimony in Darwin's favor, for almost all zo?logical, and botanical, anatomic, and ontogenetic works are founded upon the principles of the development of species, and derive from Darwin their best and most fruitful ideas."

No science is a better exponent of this radical and important change than that which has to do with the principles of morals; for by no science was the theory of evolution assailed, in the beginning, with more vehemence and indefatigability. Not only did the zealous adherents of Christian dogma fear to find, in the destruction of all distinct barriers between the different forms of animal life, a ground for the denial of God's especial favor to man, and the worshippers of emotional morals become indignant at the unveiling of the divine Mystic , but even the less conservative schools of philosophy often showed themselves unfavorable or hesitant towards the new ideas, dreading their implications. All this is changed. If England's most popular living philosopher was among the first to declare himself for Darwin, and to revise his whole system in accordance with the theory of evolution, so that this theory early began to find adherents among students of philosophy in all lands where English is spoken, it was not long before the newer schools of France and Germany began to follow in their wake. Now every year, and almost every month, brings with it a fresh supply of books, pamphlets, and magazine articles on "The Evolution of Morality," "L'Evolution de la Morale," "Die Evolution der Sittlichkeit," "Sittlichkeit und Darwinismus," etc. So many are the waters which now pour themselves into this common stream that the current threatens soon to become too deep and swift for any but the most expert swimmers.

In a short review of Evolutional Ethics, it will be impossible to consider all the literature that has added to our knowledge on this subject; we must confine ourselves to the few books that are most prominent. The first laborer in this line, not only indirectly through general theory, but also directly through particular theory, is, as usual, Charles Darwin; and though Darwin was himself no psychologist, and moreover advances his ideas on the origin and development of morals only in the tentative manner that necessarily attaches to a first attempt when made by so conscientious a thinker, he doubtless suggested to all other writers in this field a very large part of that which was best in their work. A Review of Evolutional Ethics must, therefore, in order to start with the proper origin of the science, begin with

CHARLES DARWIN

In the essay on "Instinct" appended to G. J. Romanes' "Mental Evolution in Animals," Darwin says: "The social instinct is indispensable to some animals, useful to still more, and apparently only pleasant to some few animals." The social tendency being thus classed as an instinct, it belongs to our work to examine what are Darwin's theories as to the origin and nature of instinct.

Karhun Synty.

Juumin ukko, Juumin akka, Juumin entiset el?j?t! Rusko mullasta ruwennut, Karwahalli kankahalta. Muistan murrin syntyneeksi, Pahan karren kaswaneeksi, Pohjan pitk?ss? per?ss?, Suomen suuressa salossa, Lapin maassa laukiassa. Willa suusi, willa p??si j.n.e. Jos olet pahoa tehnyt, Tule ty?si tuntemahan j.n.e. Ei sinun isosi k?ske, Eik? waltawanhempasi, Sy?? karwoja kapehen, Wiatonta werta juoa. Wie pois wihasi t?st?, Keltasihin keuhkohisi j.n.e.

Hukan Synty.

Wiron akka, willi waimo, Portto Pohjolan em?nt?! Tuo teki pojan mokoman Luun sy?j?n, lihan purian, Weren uuelta wet?j?n. Niin sano sinun emosi: "Woi polosen poikiani, Woipa laaja lapsiani; Kuin on poikani polosen, Luun sy?j?, lihan puria, Weren uuelta wet?j?. Josma tehnen tuwan tuolle, Tuli polttanee tupani; Josma salwaan saunan tuolle, Wesi wienee westokseni." Sano wanha W?in?m?inen, "Anna olla olollasa, Ohessa orawakorwen, Miehen met?n kumppanina. Jos olet pahoin tehnyt, Tule ty?si tuntemahan" j.n.e.

Kyyk??rmeen Synty.

Waka wanha W?in?m?inen Wuoria hajotteleepi, Kallioita wieritt??pi, Rautasissa rukkasissa, Waskiwanttuin sis?ss?. Sai miekan tuliter?sen, Sylkytteli miekkoasa Wuoren rautasen rawossa, Kahen kallion w?liss?, Wiien wuoren winkurassa. Sormus kultanen solahti Wuoren rautasen rakohon, Kahen kallion w?lihin, Wiien wuoren winkurahan. Tuosta tyyty, tuosta t?yty, Tuosta paksuksi panise, Lihawaksi liittelise Jos olet pahoa tehnyt, Tule ty?si tuntemahan. J.n.e.

Synty .

Y?n tytt?, h?m?r?n neito, Pitk?n puhtehen pit?j?, Ketr?si kiwisen langan, Someroisen soitatteli, Kiwiselt? ketr?puulta, Waskiselle w?rttin?lle. Katkesi kiwinen lanka Kiwiselt? ketr?puulta; Alta sormiin someroinen. Mik' on p?iksi p?t?si, Siit? synty syntyminen, Siit? sai paha siki?. Jos olet pahoa tehnyt j.n.e.

Nykysempi? Runoja.

Hewosen kengitt?minen.

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