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far northern latitudes during some of the milder geological periods. If, however, the general temperature of the earth's surface were raised 5? because of the scarcity of storms, if the currents were strong enough so that they increased the present anomaly by 50 per cent, and if more persistent sunshine in summer raised the temperature at that season about 4?C., the January temperature would be 18?C. and the July temperature 22?C. These figures perhaps make summer and winter more nearly alike than was ever really the case in such latitudes. Nevertheless, they show that a diminution of storms and a consequent strengthening and steadying of the southwesterlies might easily raise the temperature of the Norwegian coast so high that corals could flourish within the Arctic Circle.

Another factor would co?perate in producing mild temperatures in high latitudes during the winter, namely, the fogs which would presumably accumulate. It is well known that when saturated air from a warm ocean is blown over the lands in winter, as happens so often in the British Islands and around the North Sea, fog is formed. The effect of such a fog is indeed to shut out the sun's radiation, but in high latitudes during the winter when the sun is low, this is of little importance. Another effect is to retain the heat of the earth itself. When a constant supply of warm water is being brought from low latitudes this blanketing of the heat by the fog becomes of great importance. In the past, whenever cyclonic storms were weak and westerly winds were correspondingly strong, winter fogs in high latitudes must have been much more widespread and persistent than now.

The bearing of fogs on vegetation is another interesting point. If a region in high latitudes is constantly protected by fog in winter, it can support types of vegetation characteristic of fairly low latitudes, for plants are oftener killed by dry cold than by moist cold. Indeed, excessive evaporation from the plant induced by dry cold when the evaporated water cannot be rapidly replaced by the movement of sap is a chief reason why large plants are winterkilled. The growing of transplanted palms on the coast of southwestern Ireland, in spite of its location in latitude 50?N., is possible only because of the great fogginess in winter due to the marine climate. The fogs prevent the escape of heat and ward off killing frosts. The tree ferns in latitude 46?S. in New Zealand, already referred to, are often similarly protected in winter. Therefore, the relative frequency of fogs in high latitudes when storms were at a minimum would apparently tend not merely to produce mild winters but to promote tropical vegetation.

The strong steady trades and southwesterlies which would prevail at times of slight solar activity, according to our hypothesis, would have a pronounced effect on the water of the deep seas as well as upon that of the surface. In the first place, the deep-sea circulation would be hastened. For convenience let us speak of the northern hemisphere. In the past, whenever the southwesterly winds were steadier than now, as was probably the case when cyclonic storms were relatively rare, more surface water than at present was presumably driven from low latitudes and carried to high latitudes. This, of course, means that a greater volume of water had to flow back toward the equator in the lower parts of the ocean, or else as a cool surface current. The steady southwesterly winds, however, would interfere with south-flowing surface currents, thus compelling the polar waters to find their way equatorward beneath the surface. In low latitudes the polar waters would rise and their tendency would be to lower the temperature. Hence steadier westerlies would make for lessened latitudinal contrasts in climate not only by driving more warm water poleward but by causing more polar water to reach low latitudes.

At this point a second important consideration must be faced. Not only would the deep-sea circulation be hastened, but the ocean depths might be warmed. The deep parts of the ocean are today cold because they receive their water from high latitudes where it sinks because of low temperature. Suppose, however, that a diminution in storminess combined with other conditions should permit corals to grow in latitude 70?N. The ocean temperature would then have to average scarcely lower than 20?C. and even in the coldest month the water could scarcely fall below about 15?C. Under such conditions, if the polar ocean were freely connected with the rest of the oceans, no part of it would probably have a temperature much below 10?C., for there would be no such thing as ice caps and snowfields to reflect the scanty sunlight and radiate into space what little heat there was. On the contrary, during the winter an almost constant state of dense fogginess would prevail. So great would be the blanketing effect of this that a minimum monthly temperature of 10?C. for the coldest part of the ocean may perhaps be too low for a time when corals thrived in latitude 70?.

The temperature of the ocean depths cannot permanently remain lower than that of the coldest parts of the surface. Temporarily this might indeed happen when a solar change first reduced the storminess and strengthened the westerlies and the surface currents. Gradually, however, the persistent deep-sea circulation would bring up the colder water in low latitudes and carry downward the water of medium temperature at the coldest part of the surface. Thus in time the whole body of the ocean would become warm. The heat which at present is carried away from the earth's surface in storms would slowly accumulate in the oceans. As the process went on, all parts of the ocean's surface would become warmer, for equatorial latitudes would be less and less cooled by cold water from below, while the water blown from low latitudes to high would be correspondingly warmer. The warming of the ocean would come to an end only with the attainment of a state of equilibrium in which the loss of heat by radiation and evaporation from the ocean's surface equaled the loss which under other circumstances would arise from the rise of warm air in cyclonic storms. When once the oceans were warmed, they would form an extremely strong conservative force tending to preserve an equable climate in all latitudes and at all seasons. According to the solar cyclonic hypothesis such conditions ought to have prevailed throughout most of geological time. Only after a strong and prolonged solar disturbance with its consequent storminess would conditions like those of today be expected.

In this connection another possibility may be mentioned. It is commonly assumed that the earth's axis is held steadily in one direction by the fact that the rotating earth is a great gyroscope. Having been tilted to a certain position, perhaps by some extraneous force, the axis is supposed to maintain that position until some other force intervenes. Cordeiro, however, maintains that this is true only of an absolutely rigid gyroscope. He believes that it is mathematically demonstrable that if an elastic gyroscope be gradually tilted by some extraneous force, and if that force then ceases to act, the gyroscope as a whole will oscillate back and forth. The earth appears to be slightly elastic. Cordeiro therefore applies his formulae to it, on the following assumptions: That the original position of the axis was nearly vertical to the plane of the ecliptic in which the earth revolves around the sun; that at certain times the inclination has been even greater than now; and that the position of the axis with reference to the earth has not changed to any great extent, that is, the earth's poles have remained essentially stationary with reference to the earth, although the whole earth has been gyroscopically tilted back and forth repeatedly.

With a vertical axis the daylight and darkness in all parts of the earth would be of equal duration, being always twelve hours. There would be no seasons, and the climate would approach the average condition now experienced at the two equinoxes. On the whole the climate of high latitudes would give the impression of being milder than now, for there would be less opportunity for the accumulation of snow and ice with their strong cooling effect. On the other hand, if the axis were tilted more than now, the winter nights would be longer and the winters more severe than at present, and there would be a tendency toward glaciation. Thus Cordeiro accounts for alternating mild and glacial epochs. The entire swing from the vertical position to the maximum inclination and back to the vertical may last millions of years depending on the earth's degree of elasticity. The swing beyond the vertical position in the other direction would be equally prolonged. Since the axis is now supposed to be much nearer its maximum than its minimum degree of tilting, the duration of epochs having a climate more severe than that of the present would be relatively short, while the mild epochs would be long.

Cordeiro's hypothesis has been almost completely ignored. One reason is that his treatment of geological facts, and especially his method of riding rough-shod over widely accepted conclusions, has not commended his work to geologists. Therefore they have not deemed it worth while to urge mathematicians to test the assumptions and methods by which he reached his results. It is perhaps unfair to test Cordeiro by geology, for he lays no claim to being a geologist. In mathematics he labors under the disadvantage of having worked outside the usual professional channels, so that his work does not seem to have been subjected to sufficiently critical analysis.

Without expressing any opinion as to the value of Cordeiro's results we feel that the subject of the earth's gyroscopic motion and of a possible secular change in the direction of the axis deserves investigation for two chief reasons. In the first place, evidences of seasonal changes and of seasonal uniformity seem to occur more or less alternately in the geological record. Second, the remarkable discoveries of Garner and Allard show that the duration of daylight has a pronounced effect upon the reproduction of plants. We have referred repeatedly to the tree ferns, corals, and other forms of life which now live in relatively low latitudes and which cannot endure strong seasonal contrasts, but which once lived far to the north. On the other hand, Sayles, for example, finds that microscopical examination of the banding of ancient shales and slates indicates distinct seasonal banding like that of recent Pleistocene clays or of the Squantum slate formed during or near the Permian glacial period. Such seasonal banding is found in rocks of various ages: Huronian, in cobalt shales previously reported by Coleman; late Proterozoic or early Cambrian in Hiwassee slate; lower Cambrian, in Georgian slates of Vermont; lower Ordovician, in Georgia , Tennessee , Vermont , and Quebec ; and Permian in Massachusetts . How far the periods during which such evidence of seasons was recorded really alternated with mild periods, when tropical species lived in high latitudes and the contrast of seasons was almost or wholly lacking, we have as yet no means of knowing. If periods characterized by marked seasonal changes should be found to have alternated with those when the seasons were of little importance, the fact would be of great geological significance.

The discoveries of Garner and Allard as to the effect of light on reproduction began with a peculiar tobacco plant which appeared in some experiments at Washington. The plant grew to unusual size, and seemed to promise a valuable new variety. It formed no seeds, however, before the approach of cold weather. It was therefore removed to a greenhouse where it flowered and produced seed. In succeeding years the flowering was likewise delayed till early winter, but finally it was discovered that if small plants were started in the greenhouse in the early fall they flowered at the same time as the large ones. Experiments soon demonstrated that the time of flowering depends largely upon the length of the daily period when the plants are exposed to light. The same is true of many other plants, and there is great variety in the conditions which lead to flowering. Some plants, such as witch hazel, appear to be stimulated to bloom by very short days, while others, such as evening primrose, appear to require relatively long days. So sensitive are plants in this respect that Garner and Allard, by changing the length of the period of light, have caused a flowerbud in its early stages not only to stop developing but to return once more to a vegetative shoot.

Common iris, which flowers in May and June, will not blossom under ordinary conditions when grown in the greenhouse in winter, even under the same temperature conditions that prevail in early summer. Again, one variety of soy beans will regularly begin to flower in June of each year, a second variety in July, and a third in August, when all are planted on the same date. There are no temperature differences during the summer months which could explain these differences in time of flowering; and, since "internal causes" alone cannot be accepted as furnishing a satisfactory explanation, some external factor other than temperature must be responsible.

The ordinary varieties of cosmos regularly flower in the fall in northern latitudes if they are planted in the spring or summer. If grown in a warm greenhouse during the winter months the plants also flower readily, so that the cooler weather of fall is not a necessary condition. If successive plantings of cosmos are made in the greenhouse during the late winter and early spring months, maintaining a uniform temperature throughout, the plantings made after a certain date will fail to blossom promptly, but, on the contrary, will continue to grow till the following fall, thus flowering at the usual season for this species. This curious reversal of behavior with advance of the season cannot be attributed to change in temperature. Some other factor is responsible for the failure of cosmos to blossom during the summer months. In this respect the behavior of cosmos is just the opposite of that observed in iris.

Certain varieties of soy beans change their behavior in a peculiar manner with advance of the summer season. The variety known as Biloxi, for example, when planted early in the spring in the latitude of Washington, D. C., continues to grow throughout the summer, flowering in September. The plants maintain growth without flowering for fifteen to eighteen weeks, attaining a height of five feet or more. As the dates of successive plantings are moved forward through the months of June and July, however there is a marked tendency for the plants to cut short the period of growth which precedes flowering. This means, of course, that there is a tendency to flower at approximately the same time of year regardless of the date of planting. As a necessary consequence, the size of the plants at the time of flowering is reduced in proportion to the delay in planting.

The bearing of this on geological problems lies in a query which it raises as to the ability of a genus or family of plants to adapt itself to days of very different length from those to which it is wonted. Could tree ferns, ginkgos, cycads, and other plants whose usual range of location never subjects them to daylight for more than perhaps fourteen hours or less than ten, thrive and reproduce themselves if subjected to periods of daylight ranging all the way from nothing up to about twenty-four hours? No answer to this is yet possible, but the question raises most interesting opportunities of investigation. If Cordeiro is right as to the earth's elastic gyroscopic motion, there may have been certain periods when a vertical or almost vertical axis permitted the days to be of almost equal length at all seasons in all latitudes. If such an absence of seasons occurred when the lands were low, when the oceans were extensive and widely open toward the poles, and when storms were relatively inactive, the result might be great mildness of climate such as appears sometimes to have prevailed in the middle of geological eras. Suppose on the other hand that the axis should be tilted more than now, and that the lands should be widely emergent and the storm belt highly active in low latitudes, perhaps because of the activity of the sun. The conditions might be favorable for glaciation at latitudes as low as those where the Permo-Carboniferous ice sheets appear to have centered. The possibilities thus suggested by Cordeiro's hypothesis are so interesting that the gyroscopic motion of the earth ought to be investigated more thoroughly. Even if no such gyroscopic motion takes place, however, the other causes of mild climate discussed in this chapter may be enough to explain all the observed phenomena.

Many important biological consequences might be drawn from this study of mild geological climates, but this book is not the place for them. In the first chapter we saw that one of the most remarkable features of the climate of the earth is its wonderful uniformity through hundreds of millions of years. As we come down through the vista of years the mild geological periods appear to represent a return as nearly as possible to this standard condition of uniformity. Certain changes of the earth itself, as we shall see in the next chapter, may in the long run tend slightly to change the exact conditions of this climatic standard, as we might perhaps call it. Yet they act so slowly that their effect during hundreds of millions of years is still open to question. At most they seem merely to have produced a slight increase in diversity from season to season and from zone to zone. The normal climate appears still to be of a milder type than that which happens to prevail at present. Some solar condition, whose possible nature will be discussed later, seems even now to cause the number of cyclonic storms to be greater than normal. Hence the earth's climate still shows something of the great diversity of seasons and of zones which is so marked a characteristic of glacial epochs.

FOOTNOTES:

TERRESTRIAL CAUSES OF CLIMATIC CHANGES

The major portion of this book has been concerned with the explanation of the more abrupt and extreme changes of climate. This chapter and the next consider two other sorts of climatic changes, the slight secular progression during the hundreds of millions of years of recorded earth history, and especially the long slow geologic oscillations of millions or tens of millions of years. It is generally agreed among geologists that the progressive change has tended toward greater extremes of climate; that is, greater seasonal contrasts, and greater contrasts from place to place and from zone to zone. The slow cyclic changes have been those that favored widespread glaciation at one extreme near the ends of geologic periods and eras, and mild temperatures even in subpolar regions at the other extreme during the medial portions of the periods.

As has been pointed out in an earlier chapter, it has often been assumed that all climatic changes are due to terrestrial causes. We have seen, however, that there is strong evidence that solar variations play a large part in modifying the earth's climate. We have also seen that no known terrestrial agency appears to be able to produce the abrupt changes noted in recent years, the longer cycles of historical times, or geological changes of the shorter type, such as glaciation. Nevertheless, terrestrial changes doubtless have assisted in producing both the progressive change and the slow cyclic changes recorded in the rocks, and it is the purpose of this chapter and the two that follow to consider what terrestrial changes have taken place and the probable effect of such changes.

The terrestrial changes that have a climatic significance are numerous. Some, such as variations in the amount of volcanic dust in the higher air, have been considered in an earlier chapter. Others are too imperfectly known to warrant discussion, and in addition there are presumably others which are entirely unknown. Doubtless some of these little known or unknown changes have been of importance in modifying climate. For example, the climatic influence of vegetation, animals, and man may be appreciable. Here, however, we shall confine ourselves to purely physical causes, which will be treated in the following order: First, those concerned with the solid parts of the earth, namely: amount of land; distribution of land; height of land; lava flows; and internal heat. Second, those which arise from the salinity of oceans, and third, those depending on the composition and amount of atmosphere.

The terrestrial change which appears indirectly to have caused the greatest change in climate is the contraction of the earth. The problem of contraction is highly complex and is as yet only imperfectly understood. Since only its results and not its processes influence climate, the following section as far as page 196 is not necessary to the general reader. It is inserted in order to explain why we assume that there have been oscillations between certain types of distribution of the lands.

The extent of the earth's contraction may be judged from the shrinkage indicated by the shortening of the rock formations in folded mountains such as the Alps, Juras, Appalachians, and Caucasus. Geologists are continually discovering new evidence of thrust faults of great magnitude where masses of rock are thrust bodily over other rocks, sometimes for many miles. Therefore, the estimates of the amount of shrinkage based on the measurements of folds and faults need constant revision upward. Nevertheless, they have already reached a considerable figure. For example, in 1919, Professor A. Heim estimated the shortening of the meridian passing through the modern Alps and the ancient Hercynian and Caledonian mountains as fully a thousand miles in Europe, and over five hundred miles for the rest of this meridian. This is a radial shortening of about 250 miles. Possibly the shrinkage has been even greater than this. Chamberlin has compared the density of the earth, moon, Mars, and Venus with one another, and found it probable that the radial shrinkage of the earth may be as much as 570 miles. This result is not so different from Heim's as appears at first sight, for Heim made no allowance for unrecognized thrust faults and for the contraction incident to metamorphism. Moreover, Heim did not include shrinkage during the first half of geological time before the above-mentioned mountain systems were upheaved.

According to a well-established law of physics, contraction of a rotating body results in more rapid rotation and greater centrifugal force. These conditions must increase the earth's equatorial bulge and thereby cause changes in the distribution of land and water. Opposed to the rearrangement of the land due to increased rotation caused by contraction, there has presumably been another rearrangement due to tidal retardation of the earth's rotation and a consequent lessening of the equatorial bulge. G. H. Darwin long ago deduced a relatively large retardation due to lunar tides. A few years ago W. D. MacMillan, on other assumptions, deduced only a negligible retardation. Still more recently Taylor has studied the tides of the Irish Sea, and his work has led Jeffreys and Brown to conclude that there has been considerable retardation, perhaps enough, according to Brown, to equal the acceleration due to the earth's contraction. From a prolonged and exhaustive study of the motions of the moon Brown concludes that tidal friction or some other cause is now lengthening the day at the rate of one second per thousand years, or an hour in almost four million years if the present rate continues. He makes it clear that the retardation due to tides would not correspond in point of time with the acceleration due to contraction. The retardation would occur slowly, and would take place chiefly during the long quiet periods of geologic history, while the acceleration would occur rapidly at times of diastrophic deformation. As a consequence, the equatorial bulge would alternately be reduced at a slow rate, and then somewhat suddenly augmented.

The less rigid any part of the earth is, the more quickly it responds to the forces which lead to bulging or which tend to lessen the bulge. Since water is more fluid than land, the contraction of the earth and the tidal retardation presumably tend alternately to increase and decrease the amount of water near the equator more than the amount of land. Thus, throughout geological history we should look for cyclic changes in the relative area of the lands within the tropics and similar changes of opposite phase in higher latitudes. The extent of the change would depend upon the amount of alteration in the speed of rotation, and the extent of low land in low latitudes and of shallow sea in high latitudes. According to Slichter's tables, if the earth should rotate in twenty-three hours instead of twenty-four, the great Amazon lowland would be submerged by the inflow of oceanic water, while wide areas in Hudson Bay, the North Sea, and other northern regions, would become land because the ocean water would flow away from them.

Following the prompt equatorward movement of water which would occur as the speed of rotation increased, there must also be a gradual movement or creepage of the solid rocks toward the equator, that is, a bulging of the ocean floor and of the lands in low latitudes, with a consequent emergence of the lands there and a relative rise of sea level in higher latitudes. Tidal retardation would have a similar effect. Suess has described widespread elevated strand lines in the tropics which he interprets as indicating a relatively sudden change in sea level, though he does not suggest a cause of the change. However, in speaking of recent geological times, Suess reports that a movement more recent than the old strands "was an accumulation of water toward the equator, a diminution toward the poles, and as though this last movement were only one of the many oscillations which succeed each other with the same tendency, i.e., with a positive excess at the equator, a negative excess at the poles." This creepage of the rocks equatorward seemingly might favor the growth of mountains in tropical and subtropical regions, because it is highly improbable that the increase in the bulge would go on in all longitudes with perfect uniformity. Where it went on most rapidly mountains would arise. That such irregularity of movement has actually occurred is suggested not only by the fact that many Cenozoic and older mountain ranges extend east and west, but by the further fact that these include some of our greatest ranges, many of which are in fairly low latitudes. The Himalayas, the Javanese ranges, and the half-submerged Caribbean chains are examples. Such mountains suggest a thrust in a north and south direction which is just what would happen if the solid mass of the earth were creeping first equatorward and then poleward.

A fact which is in accord with the idea of a periodic increase in the oceans in low latitudes because of renewed bulging at the equator is the exposure in moderately high latitudes of the greatest extent of ancient rocks. This seems to mean that in low latitudes the frequent deepening of the oceans has caused the old rocks to be largely covered by sediments, while the old lands in higher latitudes have been left more fully exposed to erosion.

Another suggestion of such periodic equatorward movements of the ocean water is found in the reported contrast between the relative stability with which the northern part of North America has remained slightly above sea level except at times of widespread submergence, while the southern parts have suffered repeated submergence alternating with great emergence. Furthermore, although the northern part of North America has been generally exposed to erosion since the Proterozoic, it has supplied much less sediment than have the more southern land areas. This apparently means that much of Canada has stood relatively low, while repeated and profound uplift alternating with depression has occurred in subtropical latitudes, apparently in adjustment to changes in the earth's speed of rotation. The uplifts generally followed the times of submergence due to equatorward movement of the water, though the buckling of the crust which accompanies shrinkage doubtless caused some of the submergence. The evidence that northern North America stood relatively low throughout much of geological time depends not only on the fact that little sediment came to the south from the north, but also on the fact that at times of especially widespread epicontinental seas, the submergence was initiated at the north. This is especially true for Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Jurassic times in North America. General submergence of this kind is supposed to be due chiefly to the overflowing of the ocean when its level is slowly raised by the deposition of sediment derived from the erosion of what once were continental highlands but later are peneplains. The fact that such submergence began in high latitudes, however, seems to need a further explanation. The bulging of the rock sphere at the equator and the consequent displacement of some of the water in low latitudes would furnish such an explanation, as would also a decrease in the speed of rotation induced by tidal retardation, if that retardation were great enough and rapid enough to be geologically effective.

The climatic effects of the earth's contraction, which we shall shortly discuss, are greatly complicated by the fact that contraction has taken place irregularly. Such irregularity has occurred in spite of the fact that the processes which cause contraction have probably gone on quite steadily throughout geological history. These processes include the chemical reorganization of the minerals of the crust, a process which is illustrated by the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks into crystalline forms. The escape of gases through volcanic action or otherwise has been another important process.

Although the processes which cause contraction probably go on steadily, their effect, as Chamberlin and others have pointed out, is probably delayed by inertia. Thus the settling of the crust or its movement on a large scale is delayed. Perhaps the delay continues until the stresses become so great that of themselves they overcome the inertia, or possibly some outside agency, whose nature we shall consider later, re?nforces the stresses and gives the slight impulse which is enough to release them and allow the earth's crust to settle into a new state of equilibrium. When contraction proceeds actively, the ocean segments, being largest and heaviest, are likely to settle most, resulting in a deepening of the oceans and an emergence of the lands. Following each considerable contraction there would be an increase in the speed of rotation. The repeated contractions with consequent growth of the equatorial bulge would alternate with long quiet periods during which tidal retardation would again decrease the speed of rotation and hence lessen the bulge. The result would be repeated changes of distribution of land and water, with consequent changes in climate.

An increase in the lands would cause changes in several climatic conditions. The range of temperature between day and night and between summer and winter would increase, for lands become warmer by day and in summer than do oceans, and cooler at night and in winter. The higher summer temperature when the lands are widespread is due chiefly to the fact that the land, if not snow-covered, absorbs more of the sun's radiant energy than does the ocean, for its reflecting power is low. The lower winter temperature when lands are widespread occurs not only because they cool off rapidly but because the reduced oceans cannot give them so much heat. Moreover, the larger the land, the more generally do the winds blow outward from it in winter and thus prevent the ocean heat from being carried inland. So long as the ocean is not frozen in high latitudes, it is generally the chief source of heat in winter, for the nights are several months long near the poles, and even when the sun does shine its angle is so low that reflection from the snow is very great. Furthermore, although on the average there is more reflection from water than from land, the opposite is true in high latitudes in winter when the land is snow-covered while the ocean is relatively dark and is roughened by the waves. Another factor in causing large lands to have extremely low temperature in winter is the fact that in proportion to their size they are less protected by fog and cloud than are smaller areas. The belt of cloud and fog which is usually formed when the wind blows from the ocean to the relatively cold land is restricted to the coastal zone. Thus the larger the land, the smaller the fraction in which loss of heat by radiation is reduced by clouds and fogs. Hence an increase in the land area is accompanied by an increase in the contrasts in temperature between land and water.

The contrasts in temperature thus produced must cause similar contrasts in atmospheric pressure, and hence stronger barometric gradients. The strong gradients would mean strong winds, flowing from land to sea or from sea to land. Local convection would also be strengthened in harmony with the expansion of the lands, for the more rapid heating of land than of water favors active convection.

As the extent of the ocean diminished, there would normally be a decrease in the amount of water vapor for three reasons: Evaporation from the ocean is the great source of water vapor. Other conditions being equal, the smaller the ocean becomes, the less the evaporation. The amount of water vapor in the air diminishes as convection increases, since upward convection is a chief method by which condensation and precipitation are produced, and water vapor removed from the atmosphere. Nocturnal cooling sufficient to produce dew and frost is very much more common upon land than upon the ocean. The formation of dew and frost diminishes the amount of water vapor at least temporarily. Any diminution in water vapor produced in these ways, or otherwise, is significant because water vapor is the most essential part of the atmosphere so far as regulation of temperature is concerned. It tends to keep the days from becoming hot or the nights cold. Therefore any decrease in water vapor would increase the diurnal and seasonal range of temperature, making the climate more extreme and severe. Thus a periodic increase in the area of the continents would clearly make for periodic increased climatic contrasts, with great extremes, a type of climatic change which has recurred again and again. Indeed, each great glaciation accompanied or followed extensive emergence of the lands.

So far as appears from the scattered facts of geological history, the changes in the distribution of land seem to have been marked by the following characteristics: Accompanying the differentiation of continental and oceanic segments of the earth's crust, the oceans have become somewhat deeper, and their basins perhaps larger, while the continents, on the average, have been more elevated and less subject to submergence. Hence there have been less radical departures from the present distribution during the relatively recent Cenozoic era than in the ancient Paleozoic because the submergence of continental areas has become less general and less frequent. For example, the last extensive epeiric or interior sea in North America was in the Cretaceous, at least ten million years ago, and according to Barrell perhaps fifty million, while in Europe, according to de Lapparent, a smaller share of the present continent has been submerged since the Cretaceous than before. Indeed, as in North America, the submergence has decreased on the average since the Paleozoic era. The changes in distribution of land which have taken place during earth history have been cyclic. Repeatedly, at the close of each of the score or so of geologic periods, the continents emerged more or less, while at the close of the groups of periods known as eras, the lands were especially large and emergent. After each emergence, a gradual encroachment of the sea took place, and toward the close of several of the earlier periods, the sea appears to have covered a large fraction of the present land areas. On the whole, the amount of land in the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere appears to have increased during geologic time. Such an increase does not require a growth of the continents, however, in the broader sense of the term, but merely that a smaller fraction of the continent and its shelf should be submerged. In tropical latitudes, on the other hand, the extent of the lands seems to have decreased, apparently by the growth of the ocean basins. South America and Africa are thought by many students to have been connected, and Africa was united with India via Madagascar, as is suggested in Fig. 9. The most radical cyclic as well as the most radical progressive changes in land distribution also seem to have taken place in tropical regions.

Although there is much evidence of periodic increase of the sea in equatorial latitudes and of land in high latitudes, it has remained for the zo?logist Metcalf to present a very pretty bit of evidence that at certain times submergence along the equator coincided with emergence in high latitudes, and vice versa. Certain fresh water frogs which carry the same internal parasite are confined to two widely separated areas in tropical and south temperate America and in Australia. The extreme improbability that both the frogs and the parasites could have originated independently in two unconnected areas and could have developed by convergent evolution so that they are almost identical in the two continents makes it almost certain that there must have been a land connection between South America and Australia, presumably by way of Antarctica. The facts as to the parasites seem also to prove that while the land connection existed there was a sea across South America in equatorial latitudes. The parasite infests not only the frogs but the American toads known as Bufo. Now Bufo originated north of the equator in America and differs from the frogs which originated in southern South America in not being found in Australia. This raises the question of how the frogs could go to Australia via Antarctica carrying the parasite with them, while the toads could not go. Metcalf's answer is that the toads were cut off from the southern part of South America by an equatorial sea until after the Antarctic connection between the Old World and the New was severed.

As Patagonia let go of Antarctica by subsidence of the intervening land area, there was a probable concomitant rise of land through what is now middle South America and the northern and southern portions of this continent came together.

These various changes in the earth's crust have given rise to certain specific types of distribution of the lands, which will now be considered. We shall inquire what climatic conditions would arise from changes in the continuity of the lands from north to south, the amount of land in tropical latitudes, and the amount of land in middle and high latitudes.

At present the westward drift of warm waters, set in motion by the trade winds, is interrupted by land masses and turned poleward, producing the important Gulf Stream Drift and Japan Current in the northern hemisphere, and corresponding, though less important, currents in the southern hemisphere. During the past, quite different sets of ocean currents doubtless have existed in response to a different distribution of land. Repeatedly, in the mid-Cretaceous and several other periods, the present American barrier to the westward moving tropical current was broken in Central America. Even if the supposed continent of "Gondwana Land" extended from Africa to South America in equatorial latitudes, strong currents must still have flowed westward along its northern shore under the impulse of the peculiarly strong trade winds which the equatorial land would create. Nevertheless at such times relatively little warm tropical water presumably entered the North Atlantic, for it escaped into the Pacific. At several other times, such as the late Ordovician and mid-Devonian, when the isthmian barrier existed, it probably turned an important current northward into what is now the Mississippi Basin instead of into the Atlantic. There it traversed an epeiric, or mid-continental sea open to both north and south. Hence its effectiveness in warming Arctic regions must have been quite different from that of the present Gulf Stream.

We will next consider the influences of changes in the amount of equatorial and tropical land. As such lands are much hotter than the corresponding seas, the intensity and width of the equatorial belt of low pressure must be great when they are extensive. Hence the trade winds must have been stronger than now whenever tropical lands were more extensive than at present. This is because the trades are produced by the convection due to excessive heat along the heat equator. There the air expands upward and flows poleward at high altitudes. The trade wind consists of air moving toward the heat equator to take the place of the air which there rises. When the lands in low latitudes were wide the trade winds must also have dominated a wide belt. The greater width of the trade-wind belt today over Africa than over the Atlantic illustrates the matter. The belt must have been still wider when Gondwana Land was large, as it is believed to have been during the Paleozoic era and the early Mesozoic.

An increase in the width of the equatorial belt of low pressure under the influence of broad tropical lands would be accompanied not only by stronger and more widespread trade winds, but by a corresponding strengthening of the subtropical belts of high pressure. The chief reason would be the greater expansion of the air in the equatorial low pressure belt and the consequent more abundant outflow of air at high altitudes in the form of anti-trades or winds returning poleward above the trades. Such winds would pile up the air in the region of the high-pressure belt. Moreover, since the meridians converge as one proceeds away from the equator, the air of the poleward-moving anti-trades tends to be crowded as it reaches higher latitudes, thus increasing the pressure. Unless there were a corresponding increase in tropical cyclones, one of the most prominent results of the strengthened trades and the intensified subtropical high-pressure belt at times of broad lands in low latitudes would be great deserts. It will be recalled that the trade-wind lowlands and the extra-tropical belt of highs are the great desert belts at present. The trade-wind lowlands are desert because air moving into warmer latitudes takes up water except where it is cooled by rising on mountain-sides. The belt of highs is arid because there, too, air is being warmed, but in this case by descending from aloft.

Again, if the atmospheric pressure in the subtropical belt should be intensified, the winds flowing poleward from this belt would necessarily become stronger. These would begin as southwesterlies in the northern hemisphere and northwesterlies in the southern. In the preceding chapter we have seen that such winds, especially when cyclonic storms are few and mild, are a powerful agent in transferring subtropical heat poleward. If the strength of the westerlies were increased because of broad lands in low latitudes, their efficacy in transferring heat would be correspondingly augmented. It is thus evident that any change in the extent of tropical lands during the geologic past must have had important climatic consequences in changing the velocity of the atmospheric circulation and in altering the transfer of heat from low latitudes to high. When the equatorial and tropical lands were broad the winds and currents must have been strong, much heat must have been carried away from low latitudes, and the contrast between low and high latitudes must have been relatively slight. As we have already remarked, leading paleogeographers believe that changes in the extent of the lands have been especially marked in low latitudes, and that on the average there has been a decrease in the extent of land within the tropics. Gondwana Land is the greatest illustration of this. In the same way, on the numerous paleogeographic maps of North America, most paleogeographers have shown fairly extensive lands south of the latitude of the United States during most of the geologic epochs.

There is evidence that during geologic history the area of the lands in middle and high latitudes, as well as in low latitudes, has changed radically. An increase in such lands would cause the winters to grow colder. This would be partly because of the loss of heat by radiation into the cold dry air over the continents in winter, and partly because of increased reflection from snow and frost, which gather much more widely upon the land than upon the ocean. Furthermore, in winter when the continents are relatively cold, there is a strong tendency for winds to blow out from the continent toward the ocean. The larger the land the stronger this tendency. In Asia it gives rise to strong winter monsoons. The effect of such winds is illustrated by the way in which the westerlies prevent the Gulf Stream from warming the eastern United States in winter. The Gulf Stream warms northwestern Europe much more than the United States because, in Europe, the prevailing winds are onshore.

Another effect of an increase in the area of the lands in middle and high latitudes would be to interpose barriers to oceanic circulation and thus lower the temperature of polar regions. This would not mean glaciation in high latitudes, however, even when the lands were widespread as in the Mesozoic and early Tertiary. Students of glaciology are more and more thoroughly convinced that glaciation depends on the availability of moisture even more than upon low temperature.

In conclusion it may be noted that each of the several climatic influences of increased land area in the high latitudes would tend to increase the contrasts between land and sea, between winter and summer, and between low latitudes and high. In other words, so far as the effect upon high latitudes themselves is concerned, an expansion of the lands there would tend in the same direction as a diminution in low latitudes. In so far as the general trend of geological evolution has been toward more land in high latitudes and less in low, it would help to produce a progressive increase in climatic diversity such as is faintly indicated in the rock strata. On the other hand, the oscillations in the distribution of the lands, of which geology affords so much evidence, must certainly have played an important part in producing the periodic changes of climate which the earth has undergone.

In addition to the main effects upon atmospheric circulation and precipitation, each of the many upheavals of the lands must have been accompanied by many minor conditions which tended toward diversity. For example, the streams were rejuvenated, and instead of meandering perhaps over vast flood plains they intrenched their channels and in many cases dug deep gorges. The water table was lowered, soil was removed from considerable areas, the bare rock was exposed, and the type of dominant vegetation altered in many places. An almost barren ridge may represent all that remains of what was once a vast forested flood plain. Thus, increased elevation of the land produces contrasted conditions of slope, vegetation, availability of ground water, exposure to wind and so forth, and these unite in diversifying climate. Where mountains are formed, strong contrasts are sure to occur. The windward slopes may be very rainy, while neighboring leeward slopes are parched by a dry foehn wind. At the same time the tops may be snow-covered. Increased local contrasts in climatic conditions are known to influence the intensity of cyclonic storms, and these affect the climatic conditions of all middle and high latitudes, if not of the entire earth. The paths followed by cyclonic storms are also altered by increased contrast between land and water. When the continents are notably colder than the neighboring oceans, high atmospheric pressure develops on the lands and interferes with the passage of lows, which are therefore either deflected around the continent or forced to move slowly.

The distribution of lofty mountains has an even more striking climatic effect than the general uplift of a region. In Proterozoic times there was a great range in the Lake Superior region; in the late Devonian the Acadian mountains of New England and the Maritime Provinces of Canada possibly attained a height equal to the present Rockies. Subsequently, in the late Paleozoic a significant range stood where the Ouachitas now are. Accompanying the uplift of each of these ranges, and all others, the climate of the surrounding area, especially to leeward, must have been altered greatly. Many extensive salt deposits found now in fairly humid regions, for example, the Pennsylvanian and Permian deposits of Kansas and Oklahoma, were probably laid down in times of local aridity due to the cutting off of moisture-bearing winds by the mountains of Llanoria in Louisiana and Texas. Hence such deposits do not necessarily indicate periods of widespread and profound aridity.

When the causes of ancient glaciation were first considered by geologists, about the middle of the nineteenth century, it was usually assumed that the glaciated areas had been elevated to great heights, and thus rendered cold enough to permit the accumulation of glaciers. The many glaciers occurring in the Alps of central Europe where glaciology arose doubtless suggested this explanation. However, it is now known that most of the ancient glaciation was not of the alpine type, and there is adequate proof that the glacial periods cannot be explained as due directly and solely to uplift. Nevertheless, upheavals of the lands are among the most important factors in controlling climate, and variations in the height of the lands have doubtless assisted in producing climate oscillations, especially those of long duration. Moreover, the progressive increase in the height of the lands has presumably played a part in fostering local and zonal diversity in contrast with the relative uniformity of earlier geological times.

The climatic effects of such extensive lava flows would be essentially as follows: In the first place so long as the lavas were hot they would set up a local system of convection with inflowing winds. This would interfere at least a little with the general winds of the area. Again, where the lava flowed out into water, or where rain fell upon hot lava, there would be rapid evaporation which would increase the rainfall. Then after the lava had cooled, it would still influence climate a trifle in so far as its color was notably darker or lighter than that of the average surface. Dark surfaces absorb solar heat and become relatively warm when the sun shines upon them. Dark objects likewise radiate heat more rapidly than light-colored objects. Hence they cool more rapidly at night, and in the winter. As most lavas are relatively dark they increase the average diurnal range of temperature. Hence even after they are cool they increase the climatic diversity of the land.

The amount of heat given to the atmosphere by an extensive lava flow, though large according to human standards, is small compared with the amount received from the sun by a like area, except during the first few weeks or months before the lava has formed a thick crust. Furthermore, probably only a small fraction of any large series of flows occurred in a given century or millennium. Moreover, even the largest lava flows covered an area of only a few hundredths of one per cent of the earth's surface. Nevertheless, the conditions which modify climate are so complicated that it would be rash to state that this amount of additional heat has been of no climatic significance. Like the proverbial "straw that broke the camel's back," the changes it would surely produce in local convection, atmospheric pressure, and the direction of the wind may have helped to shift the paths of storms and to produce other complications which were of appreciable climatic significance.

In order to contribute enough heat to raise the surface temperature 1?C., the temperature gradient from the interior of the earth to the surface would need to be ten times as great as now, for the rate of conduction varies directly with the gradient. If the gradient were ten times as great as now, the rocks at a depth of two and one-half miles would be so hot as to be almost liquid according to Barrell's estimates. The thick strata of unmetamorphosed Paleozoic rocks indicate that such high temperatures have not prevailed at such slight depths since the Proterozoic. Furthermore, the fact that the climate was cold enough to permit glaciation early in the Proterozoic era and at from one to three other times before the opening of the Paleozoic suggests that the rate of escape of heat was not rapid even in the first half of the earth's recorded history. Yet even if the general escape of heat has never been large since the beginning of the better-known part of geological history, it was presumably greater in early times than at present.

If there actually has been an appreciable decrease in the amount of heat given out by the earth's interior, its effects would agree with the observed conditions of the geological record. It would help to explain the relative mildness of zonal, seasonal, and local contrasts of climate in early geological times, but it would not help to explain the long oscillations from era to era which appear to have been of much greater importance. Those oscillations, so far as we can yet judge, may have been due in part to solar changes, but in large measure they seem to be explained by variations in the extent, distribution, and altitude of the lands. Such variations appear to be the inevitable result of the earth's contraction.

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